Commonage is land that is usually found adjacent to a town, which is owned by the local municipality and acquired through state grants or, historically, through the church. Since the new government dispensation in 1994, poor and previously disadvantaged residents have acquired access rights to commonage for agricultural purposes. Through the Department of Land Affair’s Commonage Programme, local municipalities are acquiring more commonage land for purposes of agriculture and grazing livestock. Commonages are increasingly being recognised as an important livelihood asset for the poor and unemployed residents’ of towns and rapid urbanisation is contributing to the increasing use of commonage for livelihood provisioning. Some municipalities view commonage as a key asset to promote Local Economic Development, while others are finding it difficult to manage the land effectively, to the extent that some analysts see tragic ecological consequences occurring due to over-grazing. This has been likened to the “tragedy of the commons” as advocated by Hardin in 1968. Commonage and common property resource systems have many similarities and co-management has been advocated as a potential management regime for commonage. Researching the policy framework, institutional structures and management bodies involved in commonage, gave a better understanding of the governance and management of the commonages in Grahamstown, Fort Beaufort and Bathurst. Current management attempts are not ensuring the efficient, equitable and sustainable use of these commonages. The governance framework is not adequately supporting proper management. In an environment of resource-poor institutional bodies, adaptive co-management could prove to be the most effective system to ensure the sustainable use and development of this natural resource. Furthermore, commonage is no longer contributing to the Land Reform Programme. Commonage should be better integrated into agrarian reform through lease schemes and an efficient Emerging Farmer Programme.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree: Master of Technology: Entrepreneurial Studies and Management, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2017. / Different social classes of people in South Africa are divided, digitally. This phenomenon manifests as a disparity of information in ICT (Information and Communication Technologies), which is a matter of concern, as the use of ICT is acknowledged to greatly influence the world today, more specifically so in rural areas. An investigation to determine which factors affect rural communities’ access to information, as well as progress levels that can be realised in the support means employed by people resident in rural areas, through introducing ICT’s in their day-to-day living, thus addresses the purported ‘digital divide’. The study’s population was drawn from the Dibate Village community, located in Mmabatho in Mafikeng, South Africa. Recommendations from the findings, point out how ICT facilities can be utilised in the development of rural communities, not just socially but also economically. As main objective, the study evaluates and examines the use of ICT facilities for commercial activities, in uplifting the rural community in the area of Dibate Village. This study is of value to governmental and non-governmental organisations where improving both socio-economic development and service delivery is concerned, in South Africa’s rural areas. / M

M.A. / In the former Republic of Venda, many people lost their jobs when industries that had mushroomed during the 1980's pulled out of the area. This happened just prior to the collapse of the Bantustan government. The most affected were women who, because of lack of education, could not get employment within and outside of the province. As a way of alleviating poverty, people resorted to selfemployment and community development projects. Different community development projects were started throughout Venda. Some non-governmental organisations (NGOs) helped women who were unemployed by giving them training and help them to start projects such as sewing, knitting, chicken farming, creches and small-scale gardening. The training of people in different skills was done as a way of helping to equip communities so that they may start projects that they could manage, and that could become selfsustainable. The new South African government, through its Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), also assisted the poverty-stricken rural areas to start generating projects that would generate jobs for the people. These programmes involved the communities, the NGOs and the government through the RDP. Short and long term projects that were considered suitable by the members and community developers in the different areas were started. In order to maintain the smooth running and the co-ordination of all their projects, many communities instituted Community Development Committees (CDC). The CDC was an umbrella body within a community whose members had been elected by the community itself. The main task of the CDC was to help the different `Community Development Project' (CDP) committees responsible for the different projects within the community to obtain funds from different sources. They also helped to organise training for interested project members. In most cases, they worked hand in hand with the civic association committees and the traditional leaders, as well as the community members themselves. In this study, I have compared the activities of the community gardening projects within two rural communities. These two gardening projects are at Mangondi and Tshisahulu rural areas in Venda within the Northern Province. In their attempts to fight unemployment and poverty, these two communities (like many other communities within the Province and Venda in particular) embarked on the establishment of several community development projects, gardening being one of them. Most of the gardeners in these two projects are women. These women vary in age, education and family situations. The aim of this study was to establish the problems facing rural women in their attempts to free themselves from the grip of poverty and unemployment that continues to render them marginalised. The provision of government policy on the problem of women's rights on land ownership was also examined. The method of research used in the collection of data during field work was the interview method. This method was most preferred because it allowed me an opportunity to ask questions directly to these gardeners most of whom cannot read or write. A literature study was done on the role and activities of women in small gardening projects and the development process. It is my wish that this work be of assistance to the development workers and the policy-makers as well as the RDP officers of the Northern Province under which this area falls.

This study addresses the question of people-centred development as a transformative aspect of the new South African development arena. The concept is defined as the involvement and active participation of people in the decision-making, evaluation and implementation of the development processes, It is one of the forms of democratisation which involves the decentralisaton of authority to the lower tiers of government. This study provides an analysis of the efficacy, relevance, advantages and disadvantages of people-centred development in the South African context. The Zikhoya-Ngqinisa Woodlot Trust Project was chosen as a case study, The reason was that through the process of devolution of the Department of Forestry and Water Affairs (DWAF), which involved the handing over of the management and financial resources of the small woodlots to the communities for their own benefit, the two villages, Zikhova and Ngqinisa, were given the Zikhova woodlot. The devolution of DWAF is one of the various forms of decentralisation that has given more autonomy to the lower tiers of government in the sense that the communities now have to satisfy their own needs. The main focus of the study was to identify and analyse constraints on the implementation of people-centred development specific to the Zikhova-Ngqinisa Woodlot Trust Project. Other interrelated aspects of people-centred development such as sustainability, community involvement and benefits of the project were also investigated and analysed. / KMBT_363

Small town economic decline has been experienced in many countries across the globe and can be explained through Geographical Economics, particularly the New Economic Geography, which suggests that agglomeration occurs as a natural outcome of high transportation and transactional costs. Yet despite the economic rationale behind their decline it is not an economic inevitability and there is evidence of towns in the United States, New Zealand and Canada that have reversed their economic fortunes. [n South Africa approximately 5 million people live in the 500 small towns and many more live in their rural hinterlands where povelty levels are extremely high within a national context. Within this context the thesis examines the current economic status and potential growth prospects of small towns in the Eastern Cape Midlands in South Africa in order to identify critical growth dri vers within small town economies. Five small towns were selected for the study via means of a purposive sample and were subjected to two regional modelling techniques, namely Shift-Share Analysis and Economic Base Theory to determine their current economic trends and past growth patterns, while a Social Accounting Matrix was utilised to identify important sectoral linkages, potential avenues for growth and evident leakages within small town economies. The sampled towns experienced negative economic growth trends between 1996 and 200 I, the primary loss in employment being accounted for by regional economic changes as opposed to national or industrial trends. The decline was more severely felt in primary/industrial sectors of the economy; evidence was found that manufacturing activities declined in all of the centres, despite the industry growing nationally. The Social Accounting Matrix highlighted strong links between the agricultural and services sectors within the national economy. Thus, considering that agriculture was identified as the primary economic driver within the region and the services sector the largest employer in all of the towns it is evident that the economic potential of the towns is to a certain extent linked to the success of agriculture in their hinterlands. Seven growth drivers, namely size, local economic development, existing markets, existing industries, infrastructure, municipal leadership and local entrepreneurs and were linked via means of a scoring framework to the sampled towns' economic potential. Whilst the results of actually determining a towns economic potential are not definitive the study does provide useful insights about the impact and potential role played by these drivers. Linked to this scoring framework and to Cook's (1971) hierarchy of places in the Eastern Cape Midlands four categories of towns were identified in the commercial falming areas and recommendations were made about appropriate developmental interventions at a municipal level, such as the need to retain local entrepreneurs and to invest in social amenities. Considering the evident need for development in rural areas the study provides critical insights into how to prioritise development strategies within small rural towns in commercial farming areas. In addition it would enable municipalities to critically reflect on their municipal Local Economic Development strategies and the relevance within the context of small towns. / KMBT_363 / Adobe Acrobat 9.54 Paper Capture Plug-in

Over the past fifteen years there has been an extensive conversion of land use from traditional farming practices to conservation and private game reserves. It has been suggested by Langholz and Kerley (2006:2) that privately owned preserved areas can engage in ecotourism initiatives by protecting biodiversity, succeeding financially and contributing to social upliftment. However, ecotourism has to operate within the context of historical land dispossession of the majority black population and current land reform initiatives to address this problem. In view of the economic, social and environmental importance of ecotourism based private game reserves (PGRs) in South Africa, particularly the Eastern Cape, the main goal of this research is to examine the Indalo association of private game reserves in the Eastern Cape Province’s development model for ex-farmworkers and adjacent communities. This was done through a literature survey and analysis of existing studies and by interviewing the managers of the Indalo PGRs and a few farmworkers to get their opinions of the tension between what they are doing and the imperatives of land reform. This involved an exploration of their community development work, particularly around issues of job creation, participation in decision-making, capacity building and sustainability. The thesis comes to the following conclusions. The first is that the establishment of PGRs have a significant positive impact on the local areas in which they are established. As a land-use, ecotourism based game reserves are an economically and ecologically desirable alternative to other land uses. Therefore the ecotourism based private game reserve industry with its extensive community development focus for farmworkers and local communities is a viable and sustainable alternative to conventional land reform. The second is that the Indalo PGRs development work has built capacity in the communities it has served. However, community participation, particularly in decision-making is limited and needs more attention if productive and sustainable development is to be achieved. Lastly, communities rely heavily on external support for their development and upliftment. However, the majority of the PGRs have/or are putting measures in place to ensure the continuation of community development projects to ensure the long-term sustainability of projects.

This thesis examines small-scale rural fisheries which were initiated in two villages by the Department of Ichthyology and Fisheries in conjunction with the Institute of Social and Economic Research in 1997. The main objective for undertaking the study was to determine the potential of the fisheries to serve as viable and sustainable options that could contribute towards rural development in the area of study. To examine the contribution made by the small-scale fisheries towards rural development in the villages, it is imperative to have an understanding of the context in which they were established as well as the prospects for sustainable development. It is argued in this study that despite the significant contribution made by inland rural fisheries in improving rural livelihoods they are still accorded minimal support and attention in South Africa. As an illustration of the important role played by rural fisheries, case studies from Malawi and Zimbabwe have been drawn into the study with a view to providing lessons for rural areas of South Africa. The study took place at a time when natural resources in the villages were significantly declining and environmental degradation reaching uncontrollable proportions, so there is an urgent need to secure an alternative mode of subsistence for the population in the villages. Development interventions by the state and non-governmental organisations in the study area have not been sustainable and they collapsed within a short period of time. A case in point is the Tyefu irrigation scheme, which was initiated in the villages but, owing to various factors, it failed leaving the villagers with a diminished mode of subsistence, thus providing the impetus for the implementation of small-scale rural fisheries. In order for small-scale fisheries to be sustainable it is essential to adopt models that are aimed at sound natural resource use and management. This study has raised various issues pertinent to natural resource use and management in the study area. A model for management of natural resources that involves and aims to empower local communities in the management of the fisheries is presented in the study. It has also been demonstrated that rural fisheries in the study area comply with the model. Finally, the study draws the conclusion that small-scale fisheries in the villages contribute towards rural development, however, there are constraints that need to be eradicated.

Despite decades of gender research and public action by civil society, policy makers continue to neglect the role of women as breadwinners who work at improving the socio-economic conditions in rural areas such as Wooldridge, a traditional rural village in the Amathole district of the Eastern Cape Province. The apartheid system created an environment that continues to perpetuate both poverty and gender inequality in rural areas. Hence, rural women in Wooldridge still experience poverty, despite welfare benefits. They are located in a poverty-stricken area without basic infrastructure and with little or no access to economic assets. They use primitive methods and indigenous knowledge to develop survival strategies. This study argues that unemployed rural women in Wooldridge cannot survive without assistance from government. Indigenous knowledge and agricultural as well as non-agricultural activities are critical to household livelihoods in Wooldridge. These activities are an important route through which these rural women can escape poverty. The primary objective of this research was to obtain a better understanding of how unemployed rural women survive in Wooldridge. Furthermore, the necessary conditions required to sustain livelihood in the rural areas were identified. This was mainly done to help alleviate the plight of rural women in Wooldridge and to improve the quality of life of the rural population. The aim is to generate a policy response to rural women that is economically development-oriented. The study was based on five research objectives. The first objective was to identify the survival strategies of unemployed rural women in Wooldridge; the second to ascertain what can be done to alleviate the plight of rural women in Wooldridge. The third objective was to ascertain what has been v done to address the needs of rural women in the Wooldridge area by actors of development, such as government and non-governmental organisations. The fourth objective was to identify the constraints faced by unemployed rural women in Wooldridge in achieving food security and generating income, with the last objective to make recommendations regarding policies that can enhance rural economic development and assist unemployed rural women to reduce poverty. The main finding in terms of the first research objective is that the survival strategies of unemployed rural women are welfare benefits, the selling of assets, remittances, handicraft production and vegetable gardens. In terms of the second research objective, the main finding is that investment in human capital through the empowerment of women will assist them in improving the quality of life of the Wooldridge community. Empowerment involves skills and training, education and access to basic services, expertise regarding credit, land, the growing of vegetables and income-generating projects. The main finding in terms of the third research objective is that the Peddie Women Support Centre that is located in the city centre of Ngqushwa does not have the capacity to reach out to rural areas. Rural women in Wooldridge have not received responses to their plights from government or from development practitioners. These actors of development play an important role in empowerment. In terms of the fourth research objective, the main finding is that structural constraints hinder the economic activity of rural women in Wooldridge. Government policy that encourages investment in infrastructure using labour-intensive methods will eliminate service backlogs in underserviced areas such as Wooldridge. The main finding in terms of the fifth research objective is to ascertain the impact that new legislation can have to ensure that rural women have the same access and entitlement to land and resources as women from urban areas. Furthermore, service-improvement programmes should be developed and micro-enterprises and agricultural and non-agricultural activities that will generate income and employment should be encouraged in order to reduce poverty in Wooldridge.

This study looked at the opportunities and challenges faced in promoting smallholder farming as an element in rural economic development. The main objective is to highlight the key factors affecting smallholder production; and how those factors affect smallholder farmers in rural areas of Buffalo City Municipality, and hence identify the ones likely to predict success for future use in intervention programs. The content and scope of this study is limited to the socio-economic constraints (economic activities, household assets e.g. natural assets, physical assets, financial assets etc.) faced by rural households and therefore prescribe the necessary interventions to enhance rural livelihoods. Data was collected through review of secondary sources, direct observation through field visits and interviews with households. Questionnaires were used as the main tool of inquiry to gather data from households in selected villages within Buffalo City Municipality. The collected survey data was coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 19.0. The study used Descriptive, Gini Coefficient and Binary Logistics model to analyze the collected survey data. For the descriptive model, the main pointers that were employed for this study were frequencies and mean values. The Gini Coefficient model was used to measure the contribution of different sources of income to overall inequality. The binary logistic regression model was used to uncover the correlates of the household income for different rural groups (famers and non-farmers). The results reveal that farm income has a strong association to overall household income per capita. Unearned income sources also have a substantial contribution to household income. Remittances and child grants were significant to non-farming household income per capita. Given the diminishing farm size of smallholder-led agriculture; these results suggest that a diversified household income portfolio is vital in addressing poverty in rural areas. Based on the results this study concluded that agricultural activities cannot solely enhance food security.

In 1994 South Africa took a new direction towards democratic governance. This led to a change of government principles and approaches in leading the country. The people became the centre of the country’s development, resulting in the adoption of people-centred development and people-driven strategies. A special focus highlighted women as in the category which had endured poverty the most in South Africa. The South African government, through its various departments, has a responsibility to improve the lives of South Africans, and the Eastern Cape Provincial Department of Social Development is one of the departments which has committed itself towards changing the lives of women in the community. As a strategy to implement community development, the Provincial Department of Social Development is funding women cooperative programmes. Women cooperatives are a relatively new endeavour to address poverty within the democratic South Africa. The study supports the notion and attempts to show the impact that women have on community development. The researcher began studying the trends and realized that the funds allocated and the funding process of community development programmes by Provincial Department of Social Development is not working towards empowering communities. A purposive sampling method was used to select two women cooperative programmes in the Chris Hani District Municipality to explore the role of women in community development in the current context of democracy and social welfare transformation in South Africa; to explore the impact of gender through women cooperatives on community development and to explore strategies for the empowerment of women through community development intervention. The design of the study is qualitative, exploratory and descriptive in nature. The study also adapted evaluation and gender analysis methods to verify the effectiveness of women programmes. The study recommends that women be empowered with skills, knowledge, resources and opportunities to enable them to be more effective in community development.