The study was conducted in Phitshane-Molopo in Botswana. Phitshane-Molopo is located about 115 kilometers south of the main village of Kanye in which the Rural Industries Innovation Centre operates. The study constitutes the first attempt at evaluating audience reach and reception of the RIIC media messages. In this study, a sample of 50 representatives of households (the rationale is covered in chapter 1) was taken, for which a questionnaire was administered, including conducting in-depth interviews with key informants. The study found that RIlC media are not reaching the audience in keeping with the corporate goals and assumptions on the basis of which the communication strategy was established. The audience has claimed that the print media relayed to them through the extension officer channel do not reach them. The study also found that the audience possessed adequate literacy skills and the majority of them could read materials produced in Setswana. Only a few individuals preferred media text produced in the English language. The study therefore deplores RIIC's proclivity towards producing its media texts only in the English language. This has tended to marginalise members of the audience who cannot read in English. It is thus hoped that this study would provide a learning experience for RIIC to consider producing its communication media in relation to the needs of the audience. The study also found that the impact of the RIIC radio programme is very poor, with only a low of 2% of the sample population having listened to this programme. The problem stems from the poor Radio Botswana transmission system. The audience said that for the larger part of the day, they can't get Radio Botswana on air. As a result, they have shifted their interest to the South African radio stations such as Radio Tswana and Radio Mmabatho, which are constantly on air. The study concludes that the RIIC communication strategy is failing in the study area because the paradigm in which it is located is somewhat flawed, as a result of which it does not effectively impact upon reach and reception. At the core of this failure rate are implementation problems and the lack of evaluation that would have picked up the - problems earlier, for which solutions would have been found. Consequently, th~$tudy recommends the need to explore the suitability and effectiveness of the indigenous media for possible syncretization with conventional media as recommended in the need based integrative model (Nwosu and Megwa: 1993). Indigenous media are ideally suited to rural communication needs because they are consistent with the socio-cultural expectations of the audience. RIIC therefore stands to benefit from these media because the bulk of its audience resides in rural areas.

Dissertation presented in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Masters of Industrial Sociology, in the Department of Sociology at the University of Zululand, Faculty of Arts, 2002. / This study focuses on the problems facing the development of the small-scale business industries at Esikhawini in Kwazulu Natal Province. The first chapter brings forth the primary information about the small-scale business as it started in other countries does. It came to South Africa with the missionaries from Europe. Via the Mediterranean Sea as their route until eventually reached Africa exchange of commodities begun. The African continent has generally poor infrastructure and because of illiteracy Europeans came to exploit African minerals and took Africans into slavery. All that missionaries introduced was their concern with literacy and religious instructions Missionaries failed to develop an African entrepreneur class. In chapter two-literature review shows that there are many problems that hinder the development of the small-scale business industries that could not be developed the government. Other authors reveal that the government failed to attend some of the problems because of the lack of skills for running the small-scale business. The geographical location of the business, as some of the business is located far from the source of raw material is another factor. The competition among the small -scale business further made them not to support the communities. Thus resulted in the decline of the small-scale business industries. Chapter three of the study reveals the purposive sampling method that was used in this study. It is because of its appropriateness to the study, that the data collection was done using self -administered questionnaires. The questionnaires comprises both close and open-ended questionnaires. They were distributed among the workers and the owners of the small -scale business industries In chapter four the data collected was analyzed using tables and the pie charts, in the data analysis the researcher found that the small scale business industries at Esikhawini were owned by the single untrained people, which contributes to their decline. Most of them know nothing about the running of the business and there is a lot of competition among these business which is a further hindrance to the development of this industry. In Chapter five, the researcher recommens and concluded that the problems feeing the development of the small -scale business industries is the global problem, because it is not centered at Kwazulu-Natal Province only, but all the small-scale industries in the world suffer from similar problems. The researcher suggests that the government's intervention through forming a department that would deal with small-scale industries could make small-scale business industries to develop to some considerable level.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2016. / Environmental income in rural socio-ecological systems consists of the monetary and non-monetary value derived by people from non-agricultural ecosystem goods and services that are sourced from wild or uncultivated natural systems. This environmental income forms an important part of rural households' diversified livelihood income portfolios and includes resources like fuelwood, herbs, fruits, game, medicinal plants and other materials that are used for clothing, shelter, arts and crafts. Rural households also depend on income from two other land-based income streams, crop farming and livestock husbandry, and off-farm activities income stream, which includes grants and wages, for both consumption and cash generation. While rural livelihoods are becoming increasingly reliant on off-farm income, land-based livelihood income streams (including environmental income) still play an important supplementary role, especially to satisfy subsistence needs. Past studies in the developing world have quantified livelihood incomes and have often associated these income values to the socio-economic characteristics of households. However, neither do these studies examine the different livelihood income streams collectively as a portfolio, nor do they sufficiently account for and create understanding around the correlations within the suites of influencing factors. Livelihoods are often analysed using frameworks that are used to understand households' livelihood income portfolios, especially their environmental income dependencies, in relation to influencing factors. These frameworks can be useful tools to gain a quantitative understanding of households’ livelihood income portfolios. This study aimed to quantify and understand the contribution of environmental income to rural households as part of their diversified livelihood portfolios and relate these livelihood portfolios to household socio-economic characteristics and adopted livelihood strategies using the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) framework. Interviews were conducted during 2010 in 590 households spread across nine villages in the Bushbuckridge region, Mpumalanga, South Africa. The interviews focussed on the quantification of four livelihood income streams — environmental, livestock, crops and off-farm. These income streams were assessed at three points of assessment (POAs) in the livelihood income chain — the initial, primary income value into the household, the value used for household consumption, and the amount of cash generated. Livelihood incomes were analysed using summary statistics, frequency distributions and ordinations. These were used to gauge the value of these incomes to individual households as well as to the system as a whole, in both absolute terms and relative to each other. Ordinations were then used to explore the relationships between variables within the suite of household socio-economic characteristics and within the suite of adopted household livelihood strategies, and finally incorporating both. Lastly, the proportional environmental income dependencies of households were explored using global fractional logit generalised linear models (GLMs). The models first included the socio-economic characteristics as explanatory variables, and then the adopted livelihood strategies. Almost all households used the environmental, crop and off-farm income streams for primary income and consumption, with the primary income from off-farm activities being in the form of cash generation. In contrast, less than 12% of households were involved in the primary collection and consumption of livestock income. In general, fewer households were involved in the cash generation from the land-based livelihood income streams. However, these sellers represented a larger fraction of users for the livestock income stream then when compared to the other two land-based income streams. While livestock income was used less frequently than the other two land-based income streams, it was comparatively as valuable as the off-farm income stream to its users. Overall, absolute changes in the correlated land-based income streams were not related to the off-farm income streams. Relative variation in livestock primary income was related to the relative variation in primary income values from off-farm activities. Relative variation in the crops and environmental cash generation was related to corresponding cash generation values from off-farm activities. Whether the livelihood incomes were examined for primary income, consumption or cash generation, the worth of the different livelihoods were valued differently to the socio-ecological system as a whole compared to their value to households that were involved in those activities, and their value to individuals within households. The collective variations at all POAs of the land-based strategies were associated with different sets of household socio-economic characteristics and adopted livelihood strategies, compared to the sets that were associated with the off-farm livelihood income stream. Factors that were associated with an income stream at one POA did not necessarily have the same association at the other POAs. The choice of adopted livelihood strategies reduces the need to understand and account for all factors that influences the translation of different types of capital, which includes household socio-economic characteristics, into livelihood incomes. This simplified connection is crucial to standardising and creating models that can be put into practice at all POAs within the livelihood chain in these socio-ecological systems. Furthermore, proportional environmental income dependencies can be useful for evaluating how the worth of environmental income is related quantitatively to influencing factors. However, many of the dynamics between influencing factors and the income streams that contribute to environmental income stream are not captured. The methodological approach used in this study in analysing the livelihoods of households in the Bushbuckridge region provides a standardised framework of analysis. The quantification of the livelihood data in common monetary units at the three different POAs of primary income, household consumption and cash generation, allows the analysis to be expanded to different platforms of understanding. The collective understanding of the variation between the different income streams can be expanded to understand the worth of these income streams to households and individuals within these households, as well as to understand the worth of these income streams to the socio-ecological system as a whole. When combining the collective understanding of the income portfolios at the different POAs with a collective understanding of the suite of household socio-economic characteristics or with a collective understanding of the suite of adopted livelihood strategies, a platform for understanding the dynamics within livelihoods is created. This has potential for creating workable predictive models of environmental income dependency in these systems, especially using the adopted livelihood strategies. The results of this dissertation also raise caution that analyses of these socio-ecological systems needs to be interpreted at all POAs simultaneously with the collective understanding of the links between incomes and socio-economic characteristics, and with the links between incomes and adopted livelihood strategies. There is more value during strategic planning in asking how to encourage a set of adopted livelihood strategies that are associated with the desired dependencies than asking which socio-economic household factors are likely to result in said dependencies. Policy intervention in the area that is aimed at increasing households' dependence on land-based activities needs to differentiate whether it will be encouraging the subsistence sourcing and consumption of resources, or will it encourage the cash generation from these income streams. Particular attention needs to be paid as to which households will be addressed. It will be wiser to implement some interventions across all households and rather focus other interventions on a few more involved households. / LG2017

Rural women in Zimbabwe are disproportionately represented among the poor. Among the interventions taken to mitigate the poverty suffered by women is the concept of income-generating projects (lGPs). Government, non-governmental organisations and donor agencies support the IGPs. After years of channeling resources through the IGPs to alleviate the poverty of mostly rural women, it is necessary that we take stock of the benefits that have been realised. The aim of this thesis is to identify the benefits and pitfalls of the IGPs in alleviating poverty. A case study of two projects in Chinamora communal lands in Zimbabwe demonstrates that IGPs do provide some benefits to participants and their households. Limited funding for start-up capital and lack of viable markets are among the major impediments to increased benefits. There is evidence that women can successfully organise themselves and explore previously male dominated areas of production such as carpentry. This suggests that IGPs do have the potential to somewhat alleviate poverty. making it necessary for the supporting institutions to seriously consider improving the shortcomings presently plaguing IGPs. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2000.

In the light of increasing promotion of new information and communications technologies (ICTs) as a tool for economic development, this thesis examines the relationship between ICTs, rural businesses and rural development among rural engineering and manufacturing firms in South Warwickshire and the Cotswolds. Despite high levels of general interest in this subject area, previous research has tended to concentrate on the technical (supply-side) issues of these new technologies; the human (demand-side) aspect has, so far, been largely overlooked. The devised theoretical framework distinguishes between influential factors internal and external to the firm. Empirical research draws upon humanistic behavioural concepts to investigate ICT adoption decision-making processes at the micro-level of individual sectors, enterprises and entrepreneurs in rural areas, and to evaluate the role of external agencies. Firms in the study area are diverse in terms of their ICT adoption and use, and entrepreneurial characteristic and linkages with other businesses and organizations are found to be major determinants of technology requirements and uptake. Two types of firms are identified: inwardly-oriented firms, with local buyer and supplier contacts, which make little use of technology; and outwardly-oriented firms, which use ICTs more intensively and have geographically dispersed networks of customers and suppliers. While notable levels of general awareness of ICTs exist among rural businesses, the initial financial outlay involved, coupled with a lack of knowledge of existing technological solutions and support, and a need for skills training, remain significant disincentives to ICT uptake among smaller firms. Agencies currently lag behind local businesses in terms of their ICT awareness and use, and understanding of the potential development implications of technology. In many cases there is a mis-match between agencies' perceptions of ICT use in rural firms and their response to this area of business support. Although there is a recognition amongst agencies that their client firms are applying new technologies in their business processes, ICTs are seen by the majority of agencies as a future component of business strategy. Thus, appropriate support for firms implementing ICTs is not yet widely accessible. Findings suggest that ICT implementation is not appropriate in all firms; requirements and applications vary widely and there is a need for a tailored approach by agencies and policy makers which takes account of the uniqueness of entrepreneur and firm characteristics.

This study set out to examine the determinants of participation in non-farm economic activities by farming households in rural Zanzibar, using data from the Agriculture Census of 2003. The study goes beyond the traditional focus of non-farm studies that focus on analysing geographical and socio-economic variables on decisions to participate in non-farm activities and in so doing, fills an information gap and contributes to the understanding of determinants of farm household participation in non-farm activities in rural Zanzibar. The survey from which data were drawn, included surveys of 4755 household heads. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression model were applied to investigate the effect of individual characteristics on the decision to participate in non-farm economic activities. Gender, age, family size and level of education were used as variables to explain individual preference with regard to the decision to undertake non-farm economic activities. The analysis also included farm production factors including farm size, planted area and the main source of household income. The results show that gender, age, household size and income sources outside agriculture are the key factors that influence farming household’s decisions to participate in non-farm activities. Women and young farmers were more likely to participate in non-farm activities. Heads of larger households were also more likely to participate in non-farm activities, and undertake more than one activity in this sector. The type of activity engaged in also seems to have a positive influence on the decision to participate in the non-farm sector, with selling of agricultural products, fishing (including seaweed farming and selling of fish), wage employment and petty trade being more popular and attractive activities. Factors like education, landholding size and area of land planted were less important in influencing participation in non-farm activities. All sampled households participated in non-farm economic activities, with 70 per cent of the participants undertaking more than four activities simultaneously. This points to the importance of non-farm economic activities in providing opportunities to sustain household food security and increase the capacity for households to mitigate shocks. However, a strong relationship was found between participation in non-farm activities and the use of forest resources, as a significant number of activities depend on forest resources. The forest-based non-farm activities reported were: beekeeping, charcoal making and tree logging for poles, timber and firewood. This raises significant concern over the over-utilization of forest resources and subsequent sustainability of the related activities. It is recommended that efforts towards promoting non-farm economic activities should be directed towards developing non-farm activities that are not dependent on forest resources. Interventions enabling increased farm productivity or non-forest activities are important in ensuring food security in Zanzibar. More policy and programme attention should be given to the role of women in non-farm activities. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

Institute of Rural Development / PHDRDV

The de-industrialisation process that was a common feature of North America and Western Europe in the 1970s, through into the 1980s has become an observable feature in African countries and South Africa in particular in the last two decades. Globally, hard hit areas include those associated with the early Industrial Revolution characterised by mass production and the agglomeration of iron and steel, coal and textile industries. General changes in the global market, especially the falling demand for extractive heavy minerals like coal and gold have also affected many countries region and localities. In the case of South Mrica, the previous high economic dependence on mined minerals like coal and gold has resulted in many once prosperous mining regions of the country being reduced to a shadow of their former selves. The worst affected areas in South Africa are those of the Klerksdorp Goldfields in the North West Province and Free State Goldfields, with the latter alone losing 100,000 jobs during the 1990s. This trend has also been acute in the coal-mining industry of the KwaZulu-Natal province since the late 1970s. The firms that had grown in the shadow of the major mining company supplyipg machinery, or who processed the semi-manufactured product are also severely affected by the closing down and restructuring in the mining and iron industries. These industries have often been forced to close down because of a break in the vital connections they developed with these mining industries. Such localised economic crisis has encouraged the universal trend towards the devolution of developmental responsibilities to the local governments and other local stakeholders to - empower them to respond to these changes. This study investigated the local economic initiatives which have been undertaken in the three municipalities of north-western KwaZulu Natal i.e. Utrecht, Dundee and Dannhauser to respond to the closures which have taken place in the mining industry of this region, which used to be among the most prosperous coal mining regions of South Africa. Using their new developmental mandate the local governments, in partnership with the communities and other external interveners have tried to respond to these localised economic crisis and also indirectly to the general poverty and underdevelopment, which characterises this region of KwaZulu-Natal. The effects of apartheid policies, and previous discriminatory rural development policies in, particular, and the Regional Industrial Development policy, which was intensively applied in the 1980s by the pre-1994 government regime, have further compounded the magnitude of the challenge. The lack of capacity in some municipalities has constrained successful implementation of Local Economic Development has led to some communities acting alone to face their situation with or without external intervention.