Background: Rugby injuries are a common phenomenon. The aim of medical professionals is to treat these injuries to the best of their abilities, and if possible, to help prevent their occurrence. Bahr and Holme (2003) argue that sports participation carries with it a risk of injury, with the even more weighty issue that it might later even lead to physical disability. Junge, Cheung, Edwards and Dvorak (2004) recommends the development and implementation of preventative interventions to reduce the rate and severity of injuries in Rugby Union. The Medical and Risk Management Committee of USA Rugby (2003) also reports that the key to preventing injuries in any sport is identifying and addressing the risk factor associated with it. Various studies have identified weakness in plyometric strength, proprioception arid balance as - of lower leg and ankle injuries (Margison, Rowlands, Gleeson arid Eston, 2005; Stasiwpoulos, 2004; Verhagen, Van der Beck, Twisk, Bahr and Mechelen, 2004; Baltaci & Kohl, 2003; Mlophy, Conaoly and Beynnon, 2003; Moss, 2002; Anderson). Aims: ThE aim of this study was to investigate the influence of proprioception, balance and plyometric strength on the occurrence of lower leg injuries in schoolboy rugby players. A further aim was to develop a preventative training programme to address these variables, should they prove to have an influence on lower leg injuries. The possible inclusion of these tests in talent identification test batteries will also be examined. Design: A prospective cohort study. Subjects: A group of 240 schoolboys in U/14, U/15, U/16 and U/18 age groups in two schools (Hoër Volkskool Potchefstroom ("Volkskool") and Potchefstroom Boys High School ("Boys High")) in the North West Province of South Africa was used as the test cohort. Method: At the beginning of the 2006 rugby season all players were tested for proprioception, balance and plyometric strength. These tests were conducted using a computerised tilt board for proprioceptive testing; Star Excursion Balance Test for Balance and an electronic timing mat for plyometric strength. During the season, weekly injury clinics were held at both schools to document all injuries that occurred following the preceding weekend's matches. A statistical analysis was done on all the data collected from the test batteries and injury clinics. Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviation, minimum and maximum) were used as well as practical significant differences (d-values) (Cohen, 1988). The ratios for left and right leg plyometric strength to bilateral plyometric strength (L+R/Bil) and individual left and right leg plyometric strength to bilateral plyometric strength (L/Bil and R/Bil) were also calculated. Results: A profile of proprioception, balance and plyometric strength was compiled for schoolboy rugby players using the test data The U/18 players generally bad the best test results of all the age groups, outperforming U/14, U/15 and U/16 players with most tests. U/15 players outperformed both U/14 and U/16 players. Backline players performed better than loose forwards and forwards in plyometric tests in most age groups. Loose-forwards also outperformed tight-forwards with plyometrics at most age groups. At U/15 and U/16 level, tight-forwards slightly outperformed loose-forwards with Star Excursion Balance Tests. Generally, A-teams performed better than B-teams with all the tests except L+R/Bil; L/Bil and R/BiI. The difference between the teams, however, only had a small to medium effect and cannot be considered practically significant. At U/14 and U/15 levels, there were more practically significant differences between the A- and B-teams, with A-teams outperforming B-teams. The tests could have some value for talent identification at this age level. A rugby epidemiological study was done on the data collected in the weekly injury clinics. This study recorded 54 injuries at the two schools involved during the 2006 season from April to July. Two hundred and forty players were involved in 10890 hours of play. Eight thousand nine hundred and ten of these player hours were practices and 1980 were match hours. These injuries occurred at a prevalence rate of 4.96/1000 player hours. Match injuries accounted for 77.78% of all injuries with training sessions resulting in the remaining 22.22% of injuries, with a match injury rate of 1 injury per individual player every 3.14 matches. U/14 players showed an overall match injury rate of 11.11/1000 match hours. U/15 players showed a rate of 2.47/1000 match hours. The low rate may be attributed to underreporting of injuries by the U/15 players. U/16 players showed a late of 22.33/1000 hours, while U/18 players showed an exceptionally high rate of 45/1000 match hours. The tackle situation was responsible for the highest percentage of injuries (57.14%). Boys High presented with more injuries (57.4%) than Volkskool at a higher prevalence rate (5.60/1000 player hours). In a positional group comparison, backline players presented with 51.85% of injuries. Since backline players only present 46.7% of players in a team, this shows that backline players have a higher risk of injury. A-team players presented with 66.6% of injuries at a prevalence rate of 6.37/1000 player hours. B-team players had an injury rate of 3.43/1000 player hours. The test values for the players suffering lower leg injuries were compared to those for uninjured players. There were eight players with nine lower leg injuries: one player had injuries of both legs. Six of the injuries were intrinsic of nature and two players had extrinsic injuries. Test values for all five tested players with intrinsic injuries were weaker by a high practically significant margin for the L+R/Bil ratio. Conclusion: L+R/Bil proved to be the test result with the most influence on the occurrence of intrinsic lower leg injuries. When the individual test results for the players with intrinsic injuries are compared to the percentiles for all players, it becomes visible that the injured players fall in the 20th percentile for both L+R/Bil and Injured leg/Bil ratios. These 20th percentile values could thus be used as a standard for determining the possible occurrence of intrinsic lower leg injuries. These 20th percentile values are 1.012 for R+L/Bil ratios; 0.483 for L/Bil ratios and 0.492 for R/Bil ratios. This study shows that plyometric ratios for L+R/Bii, L/Bil and R/Bil have an influence on lower leg injuries in schoolboy rugby players. Proprioception and balance did not have any practically significant effects on the occurrence of these injuries. A preventative training programme was also designed following a study of the literature, combined with these results. The tests could also possibly be integrated in talent identification test batteries at U/14 and U/15 level. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007

Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Aims: The primary physiotherapeutic aims of the study were to validate a manual physiotherapy evaluation technique in the assessment of cervical biomechanical dysfunction, and to test the effectiveness of a manual physiotherapy treatment technique in the correction of cervical biomechanical dysfunction. The primary educational aims were to test the effectiveness and safety of a therapeutic exercise programme for the correction of biomechanical dysfunction as well as the effectiveness of a neck rehabilitation programme for improving neck muscle strength. Design: A four group experimental design with three pre-test - post-test groups and a control group was used for the investigation. Sample: The subjects were South African schoolboy rugby players between the ages of 15 and 18 years. Groups I and 2 presented with biomechanical dysfunction of their cervical spines, Group 3 had no biomechanical dysfunction of their cervical spines and the players of Group 4, the control group, presented with or without biomechanical dysfunction of their cervical spines. Each group consisted of 25 players. Method: Group I received manual physiotherapy with x-rays before and after treatment. Groups 2 and 3 performed a therapeutic exercise programme, with before and after x-rays, and Group 4 received no intervention between their sets of x-rays. Following the second set of x-rays all the players from Groups I, 2 and 3 performed the neck rehabilitation programme after which a third set of x-rays were taken. Results: The results validated the manual physiotherapy evaluation technique. The manual therapy treatment technique used in the treatment of Group I showed highly significant improvements in cervical biomechanical function. Results for Group 2 following the therapeutic exercise programme showed moderate practically significant improvements in cervical biomechanical dysfunction. The therapeutic exercise programme for the correction of biomechanical dysfunction was found to be very safe with only small significant changes in x-ray measurements (Group 3). The results of the control group showed a negative trend of small statistical significance. A highly significant improvement in cervical circumference as moderate significant improvement in biomechanical function was found following the neck rehabilitation programme. Conclusion: It could therefore be concluded that the manual physiotherapy evaluation technique for motion segment analysis was indeed valid in determining biomechanical dysfunction of the cervical spine. The manual physiotherapy treatment technique as well as the therapeutic exercise programme for the correction of biomechanical dysfunction was found to be effective in the correction of cervical biomechanical dysfunction. It could further be concluded that the therapeutic exercise programme was safe to be performed by players without biomechanical dysfunction. The neck rehabilitation programme was effective in improving cervical circumference as well as cervical biomechanical function. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Education))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Aims: The primary physiotherapeutic aims of the study were to validate a manual physiotherapy evaluation technique in the assessment of cervical biomechanical dysfunction, and to test the effectiveness of a manual physiotherapy treatment technique in the correction of cervical biomechanical dysfunction. The primary educational aims were to test the effectiveness and safety of a therapeutic exercise programme for the correction of biomechanical dysfunction as well as the effectiveness of a neck rehabilitation programme for improving neck muscle strength. Design: A four group experimental design with three pre-test - post-test groups and a control group was used for the investigation. Sample: The subjects were South African schoolboy rugby players between the ages of 15 and 18 years. Groups I and 2 presented with biomechanical dysfunction of their cervical spines, Group 3 had no biomechanical dysfunction of their cervical spines and the players of Group 4, the control group, presented with or without biomechanical dysfunction of their cervical spines. Each group consisted of 25 players. Method: Group I received manual physiotherapy with x-rays before and after treatment. Groups 2 and 3 performed a therapeutic exercise programme, with before and after x-rays, and Group 4 received no intervention between their sets of x-rays. Following the second set of x-rays all the players from Groups I, 2 and 3 performed the neck rehabilitation programme after which a third set of x-rays were taken. Results: The results validated the manual physiotherapy evaluation technique. The manual therapy treatment technique used in the treatment of Group I showed highly significant improvements in cervical biomechanical function. Results for Group 2 following the therapeutic exercise programme showed moderate practically significant improvements in cervical biomechanical dysfunction. The therapeutic exercise programme for the correction of biomechanical dysfunction was found to be very safe with only small significant changes in x-ray measurements (Group 3). The results of the control group showed a negative trend of small statistical significance. A highly significant improvement in cervical circumference as moderate significant improvement in biomechanical function was found following the neck rehabilitation programme. Conclusion: It could therefore be concluded that the manual physiotherapy evaluation technique for motion segment analysis was indeed valid in determining biomechanical dysfunction of the cervical spine. The manual physiotherapy treatment technique as well as the therapeutic exercise programme for the correction of biomechanical dysfunction was found to be effective in the correction of cervical biomechanical dysfunction. It could further be concluded that the therapeutic exercise programme was safe to be performed by players without biomechanical dysfunction. The neck rehabilitation programme was effective in improving cervical circumference as well as cervical biomechanical function. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Education))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Background: Rugby injuries are a common phenomenon. The aim of medical professionals is to treat these injuries to the best of their abilities, and if possible, to help prevent their occurrence. Bahr and Holme (2003) argue that sports participation carries with it a risk of injury, with the even more weighty issue that it might later even lead to physical disability. Junge, Cheung, Edwards and Dvorak (2004) recommends the development and implementation of preventative interventions to reduce the rate and severity of injuries in Rugby Union. The Medical and Risk Management Committee of USA Rugby (2003) also reports that the key to preventing injuries in any sport is identifying and addressing the risk factor associated with it. Various studies have identified weakness in plyometric strength, proprioception arid balance as - of lower leg and ankle injuries (Margison, Rowlands, Gleeson arid Eston, 2005; Stasiwpoulos, 2004; Verhagen, Van der Beck, Twisk, Bahr and Mechelen, 2004; Baltaci & Kohl, 2003; Mlophy, Conaoly and Beynnon, 2003; Moss, 2002; Anderson). Aims: ThE aim of this study was to investigate the influence of proprioception, balance and plyometric strength on the occurrence of lower leg injuries in schoolboy rugby players. A further aim was to develop a preventative training programme to address these variables, should they prove to have an influence on lower leg injuries. The possible inclusion of these tests in talent identification test batteries will also be examined. Design: A prospective cohort study. Subjects: A group of 240 schoolboys in U/14, U/15, U/16 and U/18 age groups in two schools (Hoër Volkskool Potchefstroom ("Volkskool") and Potchefstroom Boys High School ("Boys High")) in the North West Province of South Africa was used as the test cohort. Method: At the beginning of the 2006 rugby season all players were tested for proprioception, balance and plyometric strength. These tests were conducted using a computerised tilt board for proprioceptive testing; Star Excursion Balance Test for Balance and an electronic timing mat for plyometric strength. During the season, weekly injury clinics were held at both schools to document all injuries that occurred following the preceding weekend's matches. A statistical analysis was done on all the data collected from the test batteries and injury clinics. Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviation, minimum and maximum) were used as well as practical significant differences (d-values) (Cohen, 1988). The ratios for left and right leg plyometric strength to bilateral plyometric strength (L+R/Bil) and individual left and right leg plyometric strength to bilateral plyometric strength (L/Bil and R/Bil) were also calculated. Results: A profile of proprioception, balance and plyometric strength was compiled for schoolboy rugby players using the test data The U/18 players generally bad the best test results of all the age groups, outperforming U/14, U/15 and U/16 players with most tests. U/15 players outperformed both U/14 and U/16 players. Backline players performed better than loose forwards and forwards in plyometric tests in most age groups. Loose-forwards also outperformed tight-forwards with plyometrics at most age groups. At U/15 and U/16 level, tight-forwards slightly outperformed loose-forwards with Star Excursion Balance Tests. Generally, A-teams performed better than B-teams with all the tests except L+R/Bil; L/Bil and R/BiI. The difference between the teams, however, only had a small to medium effect and cannot be considered practically significant. At U/14 and U/15 levels, there were more practically significant differences between the A- and B-teams, with A-teams outperforming B-teams. The tests could have some value for talent identification at this age level. A rugby epidemiological study was done on the data collected in the weekly injury clinics. This study recorded 54 injuries at the two schools involved during the 2006 season from April to July. Two hundred and forty players were involved in 10890 hours of play. Eight thousand nine hundred and ten of these player hours were practices and 1980 were match hours. These injuries occurred at a prevalence rate of 4.96/1000 player hours. Match injuries accounted for 77.78% of all injuries with training sessions resulting in the remaining 22.22% of injuries, with a match injury rate of 1 injury per individual player every 3.14 matches. U/14 players showed an overall match injury rate of 11.11/1000 match hours. U/15 players showed a rate of 2.47/1000 match hours. The low rate may be attributed to underreporting of injuries by the U/15 players. U/16 players showed a late of 22.33/1000 hours, while U/18 players showed an exceptionally high rate of 45/1000 match hours. The tackle situation was responsible for the highest percentage of injuries (57.14%). Boys High presented with more injuries (57.4%) than Volkskool at a higher prevalence rate (5.60/1000 player hours). In a positional group comparison, backline players presented with 51.85% of injuries. Since backline players only present 46.7% of players in a team, this shows that backline players have a higher risk of injury. A-team players presented with 66.6% of injuries at a prevalence rate of 6.37/1000 player hours. B-team players had an injury rate of 3.43/1000 player hours. The test values for the players suffering lower leg injuries were compared to those for uninjured players. There were eight players with nine lower leg injuries: one player had injuries of both legs. Six of the injuries were intrinsic of nature and two players had extrinsic injuries. Test values for all five tested players with intrinsic injuries were weaker by a high practically significant margin for the L+R/Bil ratio. Conclusion: L+R/Bil proved to be the test result with the most influence on the occurrence of intrinsic lower leg injuries. When the individual test results for the players with intrinsic injuries are compared to the percentiles for all players, it becomes visible that the injured players fall in the 20th percentile for both L+R/Bil and Injured leg/Bil ratios. These 20th percentile values could thus be used as a standard for determining the possible occurrence of intrinsic lower leg injuries. These 20th percentile values are 1.012 for R+L/Bil ratios; 0.483 for L/Bil ratios and 0.492 for R/Bil ratios. This study shows that plyometric ratios for L+R/Bii, L/Bil and R/Bil have an influence on lower leg injuries in schoolboy rugby players. Proprioception and balance did not have any practically significant effects on the occurrence of these injuries. A preventative training programme was also designed following a study of the literature, combined with these results. The tests could also possibly be integrated in talent identification test batteries at U/14 and U/15 level. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007

Background: Globally, the number of schoolboy adolescents playing highly competitive rugby is increasing even in countries such as Zimbabwe hardly known for dominating international rugby events. Given the increased participation rates, burgeoning talent identification and recruitment programs and the reportedly high injury risk associated with competitive youth rugby in Zimbabwe and globally, the minimal qualities or skills defining good male adolescent rugby players need further clarification. This study assembled a testing battery and compared the anthropometric variables, physiological characteristics and rugby-specific game skills of Zimbabwean schoolboys to identify qualities and/or skills discriminating elite from sub-elite male adolescent rugby players and non-rugby players within and between Under 16 (U16) and U19 age categories. Methods: This study was structured in three phases. Phase I developed the School Clinical Rugby Measure (SCRuM) test battery based on amalgamated information derived from narrative literature review, qualitative study and two systematic reviews. Using mixed methods sequential explanatory study designs, Phase II refined the test battery through the evaluation of face and logical validity using key informants (n=5) and rugby experts (n=20), respectively. Subsequently, rugby coaches (n=30) assessed the practical feasibility of implementing each SCRuM test item in the local context considering test equipment, procedural and acceptability issues. Phase III evaluated the test-retest reliability of each SCRuM test item among a sample of elite U16s (n=41) and U19s (n=41). The final study in Phase III compared cross-sectional test performances of 208 athletes from different playing standards and age category to identify SCRuM test items discriminating (i) older (U19) players from younger (U16) players regardless of playing standards, and (ii) elite from both sub-elite and nonrugby players regardless of age. Results: Phase I produced the first version of the SCRuM test battery with 23 variables. Phase II reduced the constituent components to 15 variables. The test-retest reliability study showed high intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC>0.70) for all SCRuM test items except for the 5-m, 10-m speed tests and passing-for-accuracy test. Age category had a significant main effect on all SCRuM test items except for sum of seven skinfolds (p=0.45, η2 p=0.003). Playing standard had a significant main effect ii on all variables except for height (p=0.40, η2 p=0.01) and sum of seven skinfolds (p=0.11, η2 p =0.02). Upper-and-lower body muscular strength and power, prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability, repeated high-intensity exercise performance ability, tackling, passing and catching significantly improved with increasing playing standards. However, the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 test, vertical jump test, tackling proficiency test and running-and-catching ability skills test demonstrated greater discriminative ability across playing standards among U16s. The 40-m speed test, 2-kg medicine ball chest throw test, repeated high-intensity exercise test, one-repetition maximum bench press and back squat tests, and passing ability skills test showed better discriminative validity for differentiating U19s by playing standards. Conclusion: Irrespective of playing standard and consistent with previous studies, all SCRuM test items significantly increased with age except for skinfolds measures. These results highlight the sensitivity of component SCRuM test items in discriminating younger (U16s) from older (U19s) athletes. U16 coaches should consider these differences when designing training interventions to assist with the development of prospective U19 players. However, prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability, lower-body muscular power, tackling proficiency and running-andcatching ability demonstrated greater discriminative ability among U16s only, indicating a possible link to higher playing standards for that age category. Upper-body muscular power, upper-and-lowerbody muscular strength, 40-m sprinting ability, repeated high-intensity exercise performance ability, and passing ability significantly improved with playing standards among U19s, highlighting the physiological characteristics and game skills capable of differentiating elite male adolescent rugby players from both sub-elite or non-rugby players at that age category. Collectively, these findings provide insight to the high school rugby coaches into the qualities and skills contextually relevant for training for the attainment of higher playing standards in schoolboy rugby at distinct age categories.