Texte remanié de: Diss.--Fachbereich Geschichtswissenschaften--Frankfurt am Main--Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, 1994. / Bibliogr. p. 427-460. Index.

Habilitationsschrift--Universität Innsbruck, 1992. / Bibliogr. p. 422-465. Index.

Ce travail explique les transformations de la division du travail intellectuel dans les sciences sociales à travers l’étude des faits économiques au sein de l’EHESS et de son ancêtre la VIe Section.Créée grâce au soutien de la fondation Rockefeller en 1947, la VIe Section entend répondre aux importants besoins d’expertise économique issus de la reconstruction d’après-guerre. Les « économistes réalistes » y revendiquent alors une approche pluraliste des faits économiques selon laquelle l’étude des structures de l’économie s’appuie sur des méthodologies issues d’autres sciences sociales.Rapidement, cependant, cette approche est considérée par les mécènes de la section comme trop académique et les tentatives de rapprochement avec les pouvoirs politique et économique échouent au milieu des années 1950. En outre, la refonte de l’agenda scientifique de la VIe Section autour du programme d’étude des aires culturelles, grâce au soutien de la fondation Rockefeller dans le contexte de guerre froide culturelle, favorise d’autres approches des faits économiques, en particulier celles de l’histoire économique et de l’anthropologie économique. Dès lors, la discipline économique marque le pas dans la section : seuls 6 économistes sont élus parmi les plus de 150 directeurs d’études qui le sont entre 1958 et 1972.Au milieu des années 1970, la nouvelle direction de l’institution assure le renouveau de la discipline économique autour de la modélisation. Cette approche, tournée vers des critères de validation scientifique internationaux, éloigne de facto les économistes des autres chercheurs en sciences sociales. / This work analyzes the transformations in the division of intellectual labor in social science by considering the study of economic facts within the Sixth Section and the EHESS in the postwar era. Created with the support of the Rockefeller Foundation in 1947, the Sixth Section was meant to meet the need for economic expertise during reconstruction. First, “realistic economists”, then dominant within the institution, advocated a pluralistic approach to economic facts and used the methodology of other social sciences. Very quickly, however, this approach was considered too removed from the patrons’ concerns and the attempts to bring economists closer to political and economic powers failed in the mid-1950s. In addition, the reorganization of the scientific agenda of the Sixth Section around the so-called “areas study program” promoted other approaches to economic facts, in particular economic history and economic anthropology, accentuating the decline of economics at EHESS. In the mid-1970s, however, the institution's new leadership helped the revival of economics around theoretical modeling. Based on international scientific standards, this approach estranged economists from other social science disciplines.

It is argued in this research that many modern-day African states share a set of characteristics in their political ideology and economic doctrines which stem from a shared history of colonialism and forms of foreign occupation and subjugation of indigenous peoples. Historically, evidence shows that colonialism in Africa resulted in economic disparity through the skewed land and business ownership, unequal education systems, and unequal opportunities in employment and business. In response to these historical dynamics a prevailing nationalist political ideology of indigenisation in African states has resulted in systems of legislation which are designed to support the economic empowerment of native people with the intention of structural transformation of economies by, amongst other things, supporting indigenous entrepreneurship through incentives and other policy supports. Policies such as Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) in South Africa and Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment (IEE) in Zimbabwe are archetypes of this policy explicitly aligned with this indigenisation project and designed to uplift indigenous people’s participation in economic activities.In this context of a political economy of empowerment-oriented political ideology and legislative and policy frameworks in African states, this research seeks to define the features of indigenous entrepreneurship, which is the natural focus of much of the indigenisation project. It is theorised in this research that these factors combine to form a unique form of entrepreneurship, here termed indigenous entrepreneurship in the modern African state. Additionally, this research recognises that there appears to be a significant gap between economic empowerment policy objectives and the actual performance of indigenous entrepreneurs, and that this gap seems to be widening. Despite this wide-scale programme, economic participation by indigenous peoples in southern African states is poor. The total entrepreneurial activity of indigenous people in southern Africa remains lower compared to their compatriots. In South Africa, unemployment rates amongst indigenous people is estimated between 30 to 40 percent, and in Zimbabwe it is between 60 to 90 percent, with these rates continually rising. Furthermore, the BEE policies’ equity transfer approach has not resulted in significant wealth redistribution to marginalised groups but rather tends towards a few Black African elites with political connections. The research develops a conceptual model of indigenous entrepreneurship in the modern African state based on a thorough review of the literature on indigenous entrepreneurship and the two case study countries of South Africa and Zimbabwe. The testing of this conceptual model through empirical research answers the research questions related to defining the features of indigenous entrepreneurship, assessing the influence of indigenisation ideology and economic empowerment policies on indigenous entrepreneurship, and determining the barriers that apply to indigenous entrepreneurship in the modern African state.The study adopts a qualitative longitudinal case study design, whereby in-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with respondents repeatedly over time. Fifty two indigenous entrepreneurs practising within the geographical areas of Pretoria and Johannesburg in South Africa, and Harare and Bulawayo in Zimbabwe, operating formal enterprises were sampled. The study adopted a purposive and later snowballing sampling technique to solicit indigenous entrepreneur respondents. ATLAS.ti software was used to organise interview transcript data into themes. Content and thematic analyses were utilised to organise data. Additionaly, R statistical software was used to analyse themes to create data cluster analysis. The theoretical propositions that indigenous entrepreneurship would be shaped by the indigenisation ideology and economic empowerment policies proved to be only partly confirmed. Surprisingly, the indigenous entrepreneurship businesses themselves proved to be varied and modern in nature, operating in sectors including auditing, construction, events management, information technology, mining, retail and transport and logistics. The theoretical propositions related to indigenous entrepreneurship practices were more strongly confirmed, as the approach to acquiring customers, marketing the business, finding business opportunities were strongly located within indigenous social relations and strategies informed by culture. The exception was the finding that suppliers tended to be non-indigenous, which reinforces the picture of indigenous entrepreneurship in the modern African state as being a hybrid model of indigenous cultural and modern economic practices. The landscape of business opportunities are located in a modernising economic paradigm, while the practices located within the business itself including many of the standard modern business activities such as customer acquisition have an indigenous character.The findings reveal that there are exogenous factors which both support and inhibit indigenous entrepreneurship. The indigenisation ideology is a strong positive influence on the willingness and motivation to engage in entrepreneurship as it casts such activities as acts of restoring cultural pride and rectifying historical injustices. The economic empowerment legislative environment is tangible and a pervasive factor for entrepreneurs, with many benefiting directly from some aspects of operation of the policies. However, numerous barriers exist to the application of the policies, such as corruption, lack of policy information and difficulties in understanding and complying with complexities of the policies in both countries. Similarly, endogenous factors such as the lack of capital, adequate education, and training resulted in minimal use of the policy incentives by entrepreneurs. Consequently, this study developed a practical bottom-up framework to promote indigenous entrepreneurship practice. Recommendations for policy-makers and entrepreneurs include consistent consultations, assessment, and evaluation mechanisms for policy and practice incentives. / Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

In an effort to make documented and fair decisions on work‐related opportunities and career progressions, job performance has emerged as a pivotal Human Resource tool due to its link to quasi‐every career‐related decision in the organization. Indeed, differences in performance evaluations can influence a number of career advancement variables. Performance measurement differences can impart both pay and promotions (Roth, Purvis & Bobko, 2012), lead to lower levels of job satisfaction (Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter & Ng, 2001; King et al. 2010) and lower levels of perceived organizational justice (Colquitt et al. 2001; Motowidlo, 2003), which in turn break efforts to create a fair and balanced workplace. If within an organization allocation of bonuses, wages, responsibilities and promotions are partially or entirely determined by job performance evaluations, then job performance is likely to mediate the relationship between gender and career advancement, particularly for women in male dominated organizations.The centrality of job performance calls for scrutiny; as job performance has a potential to constitute a powerful mechanism in terms of its potential to marginalize and/or exclude women. Despite legislative and organizational efforts to alleviate gender inequality and shatter the glass ceiling, women are still disadvantaged in the labor market.In fact, women who have managed to enter male‐dominated organizations and occupations are still under‐represented and face numerous hurdles. Empirical evidence is plentiful on gender discrimination even when women are successful at their job (e.g. Parks‐Stamm et al. 2008, Heilman & Okimoto, 2007) and have secured positions in upper management (Heilman et al. 2004). However, little evidence is available on women’s experience of discrimination within the performance appraisal context and how existing job performance prototypes are affecting the perception of their work, including bias by other women.This dissertation is interested in filling that research gap and contributing to the body of knowledge on women’s experience in male‐dominated organizations. The potential of job performance having a marginalizing effect on women, in the sense of limiting women’s career opportunities, is examined with regard to women’s work experience and how women themselves can perpetuate their marginal position in the workplace. The intent is to reveal the mechanisms upholding and reinforcing the glass ceiling and gender inequity in the workplace.Based on the literature review and identified knowledge gaps two lines of enquiry have emerged and will be investigated in this dissertation:-  How job performance functions as a mean of (re)producing gender inequality in male dominated organizations and occupations by its gendered character-  How women in male‐dominated organizations can be participants in maintaining inequality by relying on gender stereotype expectations to evaluate their job performance and that of other female colleagues.In order to grasp and address the complexity of the potentially gendered character of job performance the dissertation takes on a multidisciplinary approach.The dissertation is divided into two main parts. The first part comprising chapters 1 to 3 reviews the current literature on women’s experience in male‐dominated organizations. These chapters provide the theoretical framework for the research contributions, presented as essays in part two of the dissertation. Chapter 1 presents a literature review depicting the situation of women in the European labor market and the persistent horizontal and vertical segregation. The specificities of token women (less than 15% representation; Kanter, 1977a) in male dominated organizations and the impact of tokenism on women’s job performance are discussed.Chapter 2 details gender stereotypes and explicates their direct impact on the assessment of women’s work and job performance. This chapter argues the case for genders stereotypes as the leading social psychological mechanisms impeding the perception of women’s work as being equivalent to that of men. Perceived incongruity between gender stereotype attributes gives rise to expectations on women’s performance, generally, that they will perform poorly in male‐typed occupations (Heilman, 1983, 1995, 2001). This can therefore penalize women in their career paths and become significant barriers to their social and economic opportunities. In fact, stereotype beliefs about attitudes, characteristics and roles of women and men influence the evaluation process and constitute the backbone of the analysis of this dissertation.Chapter 3 explores the existing literature on women’s participation in biased evaluation of themselves and other women. Women’s roles as evaluators as well as their self‐ perception as performers is outlined in relation to the way they can maintain and reinforce gendered performance norms. Building on system justification theory, this chapter highlights the complexity of gender inequality in organizations and seeks to acknowledge internalized and often unconscious gender biases at work.Subsequent to the literature review of part one, part two (chapters 4 to 8) presents the research contributions of the dissertation, namely the mechanisms, which maintain and reinforce gender inequality in male dominated organizations. Chapters 4 to 5 outline the investigations into the research enquiries posited. Each chapter of part two constitutes an independent essay highlighting through various analytical lenses the complexity of marginalization through job performance. In line with a multidisciplinary approach, the essays presented in chapters 4 and 5 are of a theoretical nature whereas chapters 6, 7 and 8 comprise empirical studies.Chapter 4 sets out to investigate the potential gendered character of job performance and the legitimating effects of meritocracy as the ideological framework, which informs each stage of job performance; from setting the criteria to using performance evaluation information to distribute organizational goods. The major contribution of this chapter is to bring forth the way in which performance and merit intertwine to perpetuate mechanisms of inequality and invalidate contestation at each stage of job performance. Gender‐blind and merit‐based HR (Human Resources) processes such as performance are rarely put to question and revealed as inherently biased themselves. The findings call for a critique of meritocracy on a systemic level as well as the implementation of an outcome‐oriented approach to job performance evaluations and reward allocation.Chapter 5 applies and extends social identity theory to explain the underrepresentation and marginalized position of women in European academia. The chapter illustrates the extent to which the Leading Academic Performer (LAP) is based on male characteristics and therefore contributes to the marginalization of female academics. This chapter endeavors to further the theoretical underpinnings by proposing an applicable taxonomy of social identity theory performance (Klein, Spears & Reicher, 2007). The chapter illustrates how social identities can be strategically performed to enhance the perception of female academics as leading academic performers.Chapter 6 and chapter 7 are contributions based on an empirical study using a social psychological experiment methodology, involving 163 Master students (Business major) from a Belgian university. The objective of the study was two fold. Chapter 6 investigated the standards and criteria used to evaluate male versus female job performance. Chapter 7 looked at how female and male evaluators differed in their evaluations and how they perceived the value of their evaluative work when evaluating a woman versus a man.More specifically, in chapter 6 participants were asked to evaluate the job performance of a randomly assigned female or male IT manager and to decide on whether they should retain their position. Major findings of this study show that not only did evaluators (regardless of their gender) automatically assign female IT managers higher interpersonal skills, thereupon confirming the use of stereotype beliefs, but they also used double standards to decide the retention of the female employee. When it came to female employees, their retention decision was directly linked to their performance evaluation. This was not the case for male employees. Other standards outside of job performance were used to retain the male employee. In addition, results reveal that female evaluators systematically gave lower ratings than their male counterparts. The results in this study show that both men and women evaluators not only use similar norms to evaluate but are also harsher when evaluating female performance.Chapter 7 explores the evaluators’ perceived entitlement in regards to the task of evaluating the job performance of a man versus that of a woman. Contrary to previous research on the depressed entitlement effect (i.e. phenomenon where by women underpay themselves relative to men but are just as satisfied with their employment situation as men) in this study, all evaluators, men and women expressed an elevated sense of entitlement when appraising the performance of a female worker. Evaluators assessing a woman’s job performance felt that they deserved 19,64% more (monetary reward) compared to those evaluating a man’s job performance. Interestingly, evaluators who gave high interpersonal skill ratings exhibited a depressed entitlement effect. It would seem that focusing on female associated skills gives evaluators the perception that this work is less worthy. Both chapters 6 and 7 highlight the gendered character of evaluating performance and point to the difficulty evaluators might have in evaluating female job performance. Equally, the findings support the claim that women themselves participate in system‐maintaining mechanisms that stress communality injunctions on female workers.Chapter 8 presents a study, using qualitative methodology, conducted in a Belgian subsidiary of a multinational IT corporation. The study is based on semi‐structured interviews with 32 managers and employees across organizational departments. The aim is to highlight job performance expectations and to render visible criteria thought to be best predictive of good employee performance. To bring forth existing yet hidden gendered elements in the discourse on job performance, gender subtext was chosen as the analytical tool. Gender subtext analysis allows for an understanding of how seemingly gender‐blind language is in fact embedded with gendered meanings. Results of this fieldwork support the analysis in previous chapters: Job performance expectations perpetuates a prototype of the exemplary performer as masculine, thereby forcing the few token women to position themselves in masculine terms or risk increased marginalization from deviating the dominant management style. Finally, a section of the chapter is dedicated to analyze how women do work in their predominately male dominated organization and how this could lead to perpetuating masculine norms of performance.A general discussion concludes the dissertation and analyses the findings (i.e. the four mechanisms that have been identified, which reinforce the glass ceiling and maintain gender inequality through job performance). Overall, the investigations into the research enquiries have revealed the gendered and thus biased character of job performance. If within an organization, androcentric job performance criteria and evaluations are partially or entirely used to determine the allocation of bonuses, wages, responsibilities and promotions, then job performance constitutes a powerful gendered mechanism legitimating and maintaining gender inequalities. Each essay in part two has examined and brought to light the (re)production of gender inequality in male dominated organizations and occupations through job performance. By using a multidisciplinary approach, the theoretical analyses presented, is consolidated the laboratory experiments and fieldwork. Equally, the role of women in maintaining gendered performance norms by relying on gender stereotypes, albeit unconsciously, is uncovered. The participation of women themselves in maintaining and reproducing the status quo limits the possibilities for contestation and hinders attempts at transformation towards more gender equity. To conclude, the chapter proposes practical recommendations alleviate contributing mechanisms behind the glass ceiling. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Texte remanié de: Diss. Ph. D.--University of Chicago. / Bibliogr. p. 283-309. Index.

Texte remanié de: Th. doct.--Sociol. du pouvoir--Paris 7, 2000. Titre de soutenance : Pouvoir politique et système de communication écrite au Congo-Zaïre, 1885-1990.

Texte remanié de: Diss.--Philosophische Fakultät--Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, 1999. / Bibliogr. p. 220-246.

Texte remanié de: Thesis Ph. D.--University of Leeds. / Bibliogr. p. 249-257.

Texte remanié de: Diss.--Kassel, 2002. / Bibliogr. p. 497-517.