Regular exercise is challenging and lapses in activity may lead to non-adherence. Adherence may be particularly challenging for symptomatic individuals with disease-related symptoms that may impede exercise. The combined use of cognitive-behavioural strategies including problem-solving has been strongly encouraged for promoting exercise adherence. However, evidence supporting the link between the use of the independent strategy of problem-solving and exercise adherence is limited. The overall purpose of this dissertation was to examine problem-solving relative to exercise-lapse related problems. Using two theoretical frameworks that offer insight into problem-solving (Model of Social Problem-Solving and Social Cognitive Theory), three studies were conducted to examine proposed relationships in various asymptomatic and symptomatic exercising samples. In Study 1A, relationships between self-regulatory efficacy (SRE) for exercise and problem-solving approach (task-diagnostic and self-diagnostic) were explored in a sample of exercising university students (n = 79). Results indicated that SRE beliefs were significantly and (1) positively related to task-diagnostic problem-solving approach and (2) negatively related to self-diagnostic problem-solving approach. In Study 1B, relationships between problem-solving effectiveness and exercise-related social cognitions were examined in the same sample. Findings demonstrated that problem-solving effectiveness was positively associated with social cognitive correlates of exercise adherence linked to adaptation. Relationships demonstrated in Study 1 provide preliminary support for previously unexamined problem-solving research questions relative to exercise. In Study 2, relationships between problem-solving effectiveness and exercise-related social cognitions (self-efficacy and persistence) were examined in a sample of exercising cardiac rehabilitation initiates (n = 52). These relationships were considered relative to two distinct components of the problem-solving process (seeking solutions to problems and carrying out solutions), which have not previously been examined relative to exercise lapses. Findings indicated significant relationships between problem-solving effectiveness and (a) self-efficacy for problem-solving (seeking solutions to problems), (b) persistence with problem-solving, (c) self-efficacy for solution implementation (carrying out solutions) and (d) persistence with solution implementation. In Study 3, problem-solving was examined among exercising cancer survivors (n = 35) with cancer-related fatigue, a problematic exercise barrier. Partial support was demonstrated for differences between more and less effective problem-solvers on fatigue-related variables. An under-examined area in problem-solving research was also examined in this study; the relationship between problem-solving and positive psychological functioning. Findings indicated significant differences for positive psychological functioning between individuals with higher and lower positive problem orientation. Taken together, the three studies represent an initial attempt to advance exercise and problem-solving literature by illustrating important theoretical relationships in three samples of exercisers, and addressing important gaps in the exercise and problem-solving literature. In regard to the latter point, the research was the first to examine (a) variables that may link problem-solving to exercise adherence, (b) two distinct components of the problem-solving process relative to an exercise lapse situation, and (c) potential links between problem-solving and selected positive psychological outcomes. Future research directions relative to problem-solving and exercise are suggested as possible next steps to advance this preliminary research.

Walking for active transportation (AT) has been associated with individuals meeting the recommended physical activity levels. Global and local (i.e., Saskatoon) reported walking rates are low. Barriers perceived as a challenge (i.e., frequent and limiting) may influence walking. Individual differences, such as self-regulatory efficacy (SRE), may help people persist in overcoming challenging barriers, with those being more efficacious having greater persistence than their lower efficacy counterparts. The overall purpose of the present self-efficacy theory-based study was to examine whether individuals with higher and lower SRE differed in their persistence to overcome barriers to walking to/from a university campus under two experimental conditions (i.e., higher versus lower challenge). The experimental study design was a two (between: higher versus lower SRE to overcome barriers) by two (within: higher versus lower challenge vignette) mixed factorial, with three measures of persistence as the dependent variables (i.e., number of written solutions to overcoming barriers, time taken to record the solutions, and anticipatory perseverance to overcome barriers to walking in the near future). Based on self-efficacy theory and past research, individuals who had higher SRE were expected to have significantly higher persistence than their lower SRE counterparts after reading the higher challenge vignette. Participants were young adults who walked to/from a university campus. Higher and lower SRE groups were identified via a median split (nhigher = 22; nlower = 23). Each participant read a higher and lower challenge vignette (i.e., order counterbalanced across participants) in a lab-based setting, followed by completion of persistence measures after each vignette reading. Findings from a series of two by two ANOVAS provided partial support of the study hypothesis. A significant interaction between SRE groups and challenge vignettes was found with the persistence measure of time spent reporting coping solutions, F(1,43) = 4.64, p = .037. As expected, results from simple main effects showed the higher SRE group significantly differed from the lower SRE group under the higher challenge vignette condition, F (1,43) = 5.27, p = .027, by spending significantly more time reporting solutions. No other significant interactions were found between SRE groups x vignettes with the remaining measures of persistence: (1) number of reported solutions F (1,43) = 3.15, p = .083, and (2) anticipatory perseverance F (1,43) = 0.05, p = .82. The present study contributed new information on challenging barriers to walking for AT. Findings from the experiment partially supported contentions from self-efficacy theory about the importance of SRE beliefs to persistence when individuals are challenged. Future research should continue to examine the potential role that SRE beliefs play in whether individuals walk for AT.

The present study was conducted to determine the effect of a possible selves intervention on self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behaviour. Participants were 19 men and 61 women (Mage= 21.43, SD = 3.28) who reported exercising less than 3 times per week. Participants were randomly assigned to a control condition, a hoped-for possible selves intervention condition, or a feared possible selves intervention condition. Participants in the hoped-for and feared possible selves conditions completed an activity where they imagined themselves in the future as either healthy, regular exercisers or unhealthy, inactive individuals, respectively. Participants in the control group completed a quiz about physical activity. Measures of self-regulatory efficacy (scheduling, planning, goal-setting, and barrier self-efficacy) were taken immediately before and after exposure to the intervention. Participants who received a possible selves intervention reported greater exercise behaviour 4 weeks post-intervention than participants in the control group (p = .05). Furthermore, planning self-efficacy was found to partially mediate the effect of the possible selves intervention on exercise behaviour. These findings suggest that possible selves may play a role in increasing exercise behaviour among inactive individuals. Future research is warranted to examine the role of possible selves interventions in increasing exercise behaviour and to determine which other variables may mediate this intervention-exercise behaviour relationship. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

The self-regulation of exercise for the purposes of disease prevention and rehabilitation is a complex process that includes temporary lapses from exercise adherence. Research is lacking in the understanding of the cognitive experiences associated with lapsing and the impact of possible negative thoughts, emotions, and self-evaluations on future exercise self-regulation. Using a Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) framework, the primary purpose of the present experimental study was to examine the impact of potential negative reactions to exercise lapse experiences on exercise self-regulatory cognitions (i.e., decisional struggle, exercise self-regulatory efficacy, action planning, and willingness to self-regulate) using an experimental message designed to induce negative thoughts and affect about exercise lapsing. A secondary purpose of the study was to examine the potential moderating influences of the relatively unexplored construct of emotional self-efficacy on possible negative reactions. Forty-four adult participants were recruited from two exercise therapy programs run by the local health region to participate in this study. Participants filled out baseline measures of demographics, exercise self-regulatory efficacy (exercise SRE), and emotional self-efficacy at the first meeting. At the second meeting, participants were randomly assigned to read either an information control message or a negative lapse message. After reading the message, participants responded to affect measures and recorded their acute exercise thoughts. Next, self-regulatory cognitions were measured including decisional struggle, exercise SRE, action planning, and willingness to self-regulate. There were no significant differences between experimental groups on any of the measures, F(9, 34) = .80, Wilks ë = .825, p = .619. Possible explanations for these nonsignificant results are discussed. Given the opportunity to compare the present results to past research on acute positive and negative exercise thoughts by Gyurcsik and colleagues, and to potentially extend these findings to a population of exercise therapy maintainers, post hoc analysis of related research questions was carried out. Groups of positive and negative thinkers were formed based on the measure of acute thoughts. The omnibus MANOVA comparing positive and negative thinkers on social-cognitive measures was significant, F(8, 31) = 2.72, Wilks ë = .588, p = .021. As hypothesized, positive thinkers were found to have higher positive affect (p = .03), lower decisional struggle (p = .006), higher exercise SRE (p = .013), and higher willingness to self-regulate (p = .003). Positive thinkers also exercised more frequently than negative thinkers both at the program, F(1, 36) = 9.5, p = .004, and independently, F(1, 36) = 5.4, p = .026. Results are discussed in relation to SCT and past research on acute exercise thoughts. Limitations of the original experiment are discussed in terms of the negative lapse message. Future research is discussed both for the study of negative reactions to lapsing and for positive and negative thinking related to exercise.

Structured physical activity (SPA) is one type of physical activity in which preschool aged children participate (e.g., soccer programs). Given that SPA often occurs at community-based locations, such as at a field or hockey rink, primary caregivers, who are often times mothers, must transport their preschool aged children to the scheduled SPA. Although studies have examined social cognitions important to individuals participation in their own scheduled physical activity, no study to date has focused on the social cognitions of mothers that may be related to the transportation of their preschool aged children to SPA. The purpose of this two-study dissertation was to use self-efficacy theory to develop and examine the reliability and validity evidence of measures to assess mothers social cognitions (i.e., self-regulatory efficacy to overcome barriers and to schedule/plan; outcome expectations including likelihood and value) that may be related to transporting their children to SPA. A literature review, focus group elicitation with nine participants (Mean age = 35.25 years; SD = 3.57), and feedback from three expert judges and 10 participants were used to develop items for each of the measures in Study 1. The reliability of the measures was then investigated in Study 1 using data from 31 participants (Mean age= 33.50 years; SD = 5.79) to examine initial internal consistency and then 64 participants (Mean age= 32.87 years; SD = 4.48) to further examine internal consistency and temporal stability. Findings revealed some evidence for the content and construct validity, internal consistency, and temporal stability of the measures. To continue the construct validation of the measures, it was important to continue to examine the reliability evidence of the measures and other aspects of validity, including concurrent and predictive validity. In Study 2, data from 93 participants (Mean age= 34.88 years; SD = 5.04) were used to examine evidence of the criterion-related validity (i.e., concurrent and predictive) of the developed measures. Results revealed convergence of the measures that assessed similar constructs (i.e., self-regulatory efficacy to schedule/plan and to overcome barriers; outcome expectations: likelihood and value). However, evidence of the divergence of the self-regulatory efficacy measures from the outcome expectation measures was less consistent. Results also revealed that the self-regulatory efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations measures were not significant, independent predictors of transportation to SPA. These predictive validity findings as well as the divergence findings may have been due to the type of mothers who participated in the study (i.e., highly experienced in transporting children to SPA). Findings from the present series of studies suggest a need for continued exploration of the measures, including research with a more diverse sample. Collecting further reliability and validity evidence of these measures to compare it with the evidence from the present studies would contribute to the ongoing construct validation of these measures.

While being physically active is an important and valued goal for many individuals, family, work, school, and friends are also valued aspects of their lives. Many social cognitive theories examine health behaviours in isolation, without taking into consideration the context, or life circumstances, in which people seek to achieve such health behaviours. Examining a single goal-directed behaviour without acknowledging the possible influence of other concurrent goals managed by an individual may oversimplify the self-regulation needed in daily life. The overarching purpose of this dissertation was to examine exercise behaviour in the context of concurrently held, valued non-exercise activities (e.g., academics, family). Relationships between valued non-exercise goals, concurrent self-regulatory efficacy, and physical activity behaviour were explored. Social cognitive theory provided the theoretical framework for the three studies conducted. Study 1 sought to discriminate university students whose physical activity level was either commensurate or not with achieving health benefits using social-cognitive predictors. These predictors took into account participants beliefs about the concurrent management of physical activity with other valued non-exercise goals. Results indicated that concurrent self-regulatory efficacy (belief in abilities to self-regulate the management of multiple goals including exercise) discriminated those active enough to achieve health benefits from those who were not active enough. Study 2 used a prospective design to explore potential mechanisms that allow individuals to successfully self-regulate exercise behaviour with other goals during hectic times. Undergraduate students were observed during a 4-week examination period where they faced greater than usual challenges to exercising regularly. Concurrent self-regulatory efficacy was identified as a partial mediator of the relationship between value of an exercise goal and future exercise behaviour, and this effect was stable during this challenging period of time. Study 3 used a randomized experimental design to test the social cognitive theory hypothesis that individuals with greater concurrent self-regulatory efficacy would persevere with exercise to a greater extent when facing numerous exercise barriers than their lower efficacy counterparts. Forty-nine busy working mothers with young children who were exercisers or wanted to exercise comprised the study sample. Participants either high or low in concurrent self-regulatory efficacy were exposed to numerous or minimal exercise barrier scenarios. Consistent with social cognitive theory, when exercise barriers were numerous, mothers with higher concurrent self-regulatory efficacy demonstrated greater perseverance towards achieving their exercise goals, and perceived the concurrent management of exercise along with their other valued life goals as more positively challenging, than did mothers with lower concurrent self-regulatory efficacy. Taken together, these results provide preliminary support for the utility of using social cognitive theory to examine beliefs about concurrent self-regulation of exercise along with other valued non-exercise goals when studying exercise behaviour. Future directions and applications to theory are discussed.

The self-regulation of exercise for the purposes of disease prevention and rehabilitation is a complex process that includes temporary lapses from exercise adherence. Research is lacking in the understanding of the cognitive experiences associated with lapsing and the impact of possible negative thoughts, emotions, and self-evaluations on future exercise self-regulation. Using a Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) framework, the primary purpose of the present experimental study was to examine the impact of potential negative reactions to exercise lapse experiences on exercise self-regulatory cognitions (i.e., decisional struggle, exercise self-regulatory efficacy, action planning, and willingness to self-regulate) using an experimental message designed to induce negative thoughts and affect about exercise lapsing. A secondary purpose of the study was to examine the potential moderating influences of the relatively unexplored construct of emotional self-efficacy on possible negative reactions. Forty-four adult participants were recruited from two exercise therapy programs run by the local health region to participate in this study. Participants filled out baseline measures of demographics, exercise self-regulatory efficacy (exercise SRE), and emotional self-efficacy at the first meeting. At the second meeting, participants were randomly assigned to read either an information control message or a negative lapse message. After reading the message, participants responded to affect measures and recorded their acute exercise thoughts. Next, self-regulatory cognitions were measured including decisional struggle, exercise SRE, action planning, and willingness to self-regulate. There were no significant differences between experimental groups on any of the measures, F(9, 34) = .80, Wilks ë = .825, p = .619. Possible explanations for these nonsignificant results are discussed. Given the opportunity to compare the present results to past research on acute positive and negative exercise thoughts by Gyurcsik and colleagues, and to potentially extend these findings to a population of exercise therapy maintainers, post hoc analysis of related research questions was carried out. Groups of positive and negative thinkers were formed based on the measure of acute thoughts. The omnibus MANOVA comparing positive and negative thinkers on social-cognitive measures was significant, F(8, 31) = 2.72, Wilks ë = .588, p = .021. As hypothesized, positive thinkers were found to have higher positive affect (p = .03), lower decisional struggle (p = .006), higher exercise SRE (p = .013), and higher willingness to self-regulate (p = .003). Positive thinkers also exercised more frequently than negative thinkers both at the program, F(1, 36) = 9.5, p = .004, and independently, F(1, 36) = 5.4, p = .026. Results are discussed in relation to SCT and past research on acute exercise thoughts. Limitations of the original experiment are discussed in terms of the negative lapse message. Future research is discussed both for the study of negative reactions to lapsing and for positive and negative thinking related to exercise.

While being physically active is an important and valued goal for many individuals, family, work, school, and friends are also valued aspects of their lives. Many social cognitive theories examine health behaviours in isolation, without taking into consideration the context, or life circumstances, in which people seek to achieve such health behaviours. Examining a single goal-directed behaviour without acknowledging the possible influence of other concurrent goals managed by an individual may oversimplify the self-regulation needed in daily life. The overarching purpose of this dissertation was to examine exercise behaviour in the context of concurrently held, valued non-exercise activities (e.g., academics, family). Relationships between valued non-exercise goals, concurrent self-regulatory efficacy, and physical activity behaviour were explored. Social cognitive theory provided the theoretical framework for the three studies conducted. Study 1 sought to discriminate university students whose physical activity level was either commensurate or not with achieving health benefits using social-cognitive predictors. These predictors took into account participants beliefs about the concurrent management of physical activity with other valued non-exercise goals. Results indicated that concurrent self-regulatory efficacy (belief in abilities to self-regulate the management of multiple goals including exercise) discriminated those active enough to achieve health benefits from those who were not active enough. Study 2 used a prospective design to explore potential mechanisms that allow individuals to successfully self-regulate exercise behaviour with other goals during hectic times. Undergraduate students were observed during a 4-week examination period where they faced greater than usual challenges to exercising regularly. Concurrent self-regulatory efficacy was identified as a partial mediator of the relationship between value of an exercise goal and future exercise behaviour, and this effect was stable during this challenging period of time. Study 3 used a randomized experimental design to test the social cognitive theory hypothesis that individuals with greater concurrent self-regulatory efficacy would persevere with exercise to a greater extent when facing numerous exercise barriers than their lower efficacy counterparts. Forty-nine busy working mothers with young children who were exercisers or wanted to exercise comprised the study sample. Participants either high or low in concurrent self-regulatory efficacy were exposed to numerous or minimal exercise barrier scenarios. Consistent with social cognitive theory, when exercise barriers were numerous, mothers with higher concurrent self-regulatory efficacy demonstrated greater perseverance towards achieving their exercise goals, and perceived the concurrent management of exercise along with their other valued life goals as more positively challenging, than did mothers with lower concurrent self-regulatory efficacy. Taken together, these results provide preliminary support for the utility of using social cognitive theory to examine beliefs about concurrent self-regulation of exercise along with other valued non-exercise goals when studying exercise behaviour. Future directions and applications to theory are discussed.

Structured physical activity (SPA) is one type of physical activity in which preschool aged children participate (e.g., soccer programs). Given that SPA often occurs at community-based locations, such as at a field or hockey rink, primary caregivers, who are often times mothers, must transport their preschool aged children to the scheduled SPA. Although studies have examined social cognitions important to individuals participation in their own scheduled physical activity, no study to date has focused on the social cognitions of mothers that may be related to the transportation of their preschool aged children to SPA. The purpose of this two-study dissertation was to use self-efficacy theory to develop and examine the reliability and validity evidence of measures to assess mothers social cognitions (i.e., self-regulatory efficacy to overcome barriers and to schedule/plan; outcome expectations including likelihood and value) that may be related to transporting their children to SPA. A literature review, focus group elicitation with nine participants (Mean age = 35.25 years; SD = 3.57), and feedback from three expert judges and 10 participants were used to develop items for each of the measures in Study 1. The reliability of the measures was then investigated in Study 1 using data from 31 participants (Mean age= 33.50 years; SD = 5.79) to examine initial internal consistency and then 64 participants (Mean age= 32.87 years; SD = 4.48) to further examine internal consistency and temporal stability. Findings revealed some evidence for the content and construct validity, internal consistency, and temporal stability of the measures. To continue the construct validation of the measures, it was important to continue to examine the reliability evidence of the measures and other aspects of validity, including concurrent and predictive validity. In Study 2, data from 93 participants (Mean age= 34.88 years; SD = 5.04) were used to examine evidence of the criterion-related validity (i.e., concurrent and predictive) of the developed measures. Results revealed convergence of the measures that assessed similar constructs (i.e., self-regulatory efficacy to schedule/plan and to overcome barriers; outcome expectations: likelihood and value). However, evidence of the divergence of the self-regulatory efficacy measures from the outcome expectation measures was less consistent. Results also revealed that the self-regulatory efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations measures were not significant, independent predictors of transportation to SPA. These predictive validity findings as well as the divergence findings may have been due to the type of mothers who participated in the study (i.e., highly experienced in transporting children to SPA). Findings from the present series of studies suggest a need for continued exploration of the measures, including research with a more diverse sample. Collecting further reliability and validity evidence of these measures to compare it with the evidence from the present studies would contribute to the ongoing construct validation of these measures.