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The Nitrogen Phosphorus Detector is a sensitive, selective device used in gas chromatography. It responds selectively towards nitrogen and phosphorus containing organic compounds with detection limits in the picogram range. The detector is of great importance for the measurement of trace levels of drugs, pesticides and herbicides in biological matrices and the environment. There is, however, some dispute in the literature regarding the detector's response mechanism. The detector is based on a hydrogen-air diffusion flame. Two electrodes polarise the flame with a potential difference of about 200 V and the current through the flame is measured using an electrometer amplifier. The selectivity of the system relies on the presence of an alkali metal source, usually rubidium. In the presence of nitrogen- and phosphorus-containing organics, C~ and PO· anions are formed, yielding a current which is the measured response. It has been suggested that this selective response arises from a charge transfer reaction between the rubidium excited states and ~ or PO· and P02• radicals. Using an AlGaAs diode laser, the rubidium excited state population can be modulated and the influence on detector current monitored. Rubidium resonance-enhanced ionisation, laser-induced fluorescence and emission spectroscopy have all been used to further probe the response mechanism of the detector. Results have demonstrated that during response the C~ radical concentration increases. In addition the diode laser can modulate the excited state rubidium concentration altering it by a factor of 2. However despite more that doubling the Rubidium excited state concentration no increase in detector response is observed. From these observations it has been concluded that the above mentioned charge transfer reaction plays little if any role in detector response.

This thesis describes the use of short external cavity (SXC) semiconductor diode lasers as single longitudinal mode (SM) tunable sources. A SXC forces a multimode diode laser to lase on a single longitudinal mode. Various laser types were investigated in SXC configurations using both planar and spherical external mirrors. The side mode suppression ratio (SMSR) and the SM tuning range were measured with respect to the positioning of the external cavity element. With a planar mirror as the SXC element, SMSR of —33 dB and SM tuning ranges of 1 nm (110% of a mode spacing) were obtained with inverted rib waveguide (IRW) lasers. For external cavity lengths of ~ 60 um the total continuous SM tuning range summed over all modes was found to be 72 cm^-1 or 12 nm. The use of a spherical mirror improved the results. A SXC laser consisting of a spherical mirror and an IRW laser had SMSR values of —37 dB and SM tuning ranges of 1.10 nm. Power and voltage characteristics of SM SXC lasers were also examined. It was found possible to use the laser voltage and electronic feedback to control the external cavity length for optimum SM output. The external differential quantum efficiency (DQE) was found to be wavelength dependent and may be explained by the wavelength dependence of the scattering/absorption loss. One aspect of the characteristic trend of the DQE with respect to wavelength is that it offers the possibility of determining the lasing wavelength of the SM without the use of a monochromator. / Thesis / Master of Engineering (ME)

Gallium Nitride (GaN) is considered a very promising material for use in the field of power devices as its application in power systems would result in a significant increase in the power density, reduced power losses, and the potential to operate at high frequencies. The wide bandgap of the material allows a high critical electric field to be sustained which can lead to the design of devices with a shorter drift region, and therefore with lower on-state resistance, if compared to a silicon-based device with the same breakdown voltage. The use of an AlGaN/GaN heterostructure allows the formation of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) at the heterointerface where carriers can reach very high mobility values. These properties can lead to the production of High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs) and Schottky barrier diodes with superior performance, even when compared to devices based on state-of-the-art technologies such as Silicon Carbide or superjunctions. Furthermore, epitaxial growth of GaN layers on silicon wafers allows a significant reduction in the production cost and makes these devices competitive from a price perspective. This thesis will deal with a variety of topics concerning the characterization, design and optimization of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs and Schottky diodes with a 600 to 650V rating. Discussion will span several topics from device cross-section physics to circuit implementation and will be based on both experimental results and advanced modelling. More specifically, the thesis is concerned with the characterization of AlGaN/GaN Schottky diodes and extraction of their main parameters such as ideality factor, barrier height and series resistance. A thorough investigation of their reverse recovery performance and a comparison to competing technologies is also given. Several topics which concern the operation of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs are then discussed. The underlying physics of p-gate enhancement mode transistors are analysed followed by a discussion of the challenges associated with the implementation of these devices at a circuit level. Finally, a comparison of the performance of a specific area-saving layout (Bonding pad over active area) and a conventional design is given. The thesis aims to significantly enhance the understanding of the behaviour of these devices to enable better or new commercial designs to emerge.

The effects of tension and compression applied to unbonded InGaAsP semiconductor diode lasers have been studied. A theoretical calculation of the stress distribution within the laser and an analysis of the effect of strain on optical gain in semiconductors is presented. The observed dependence of threshold, wavelength, and polarization of the laser output on the applied stress is explained in terms of the strain dependence of the valence-band wavefunctions. The polarization behaviour is found to be related to thermal stress and the structure of the device. A technique has been developed to measure the thermal stress induced by current heating at the 105 dynes/cm2 level. The effect of stress on the below threshold behaviour of the lasers was investigated. The results are consistent with the strain dependence of the TE and TM mode gains. / Thesis / Master of Engineering (ME)

Introdução: A Radioterapia é frequentemente utilizada no tratamento do câncer, seja como uma modalidade simples ou em combinação com outras modalidades, tais como a cirurgia e a quimioterapia. Com o objetivo de eliminar células não desejadas no organismo humano, utiliza-se de radiações ionizantes para provocar a destruição de células tumorais pela absorção da energia da radiação incidente. A principal dificuldade encontrada em radioterapia é que as células tumorais não são tratadas isoladamente, isto é, o dano da radiação não é restrito somente às células tumorais, mas afeta também as células normais. Assim sendo, é essencial que a dose de radiação liberada nos tecidos normais seja tão baixa quanto possível para minimizar o risco de efeitos colaterais provocados pelos tratamentos radioterápicos. Objetivos: O objetivo deste trabalho é a caracterização de dosímetros semicondutores e dosímetros termoluminescentes e suas aplicações em técnicas não convencionais de Radioterapia. A partir da caracterização será possível a implementação dos dosímetros como sistema de dosimetria in vivo em teleterapia com feixe de fótons, visando atender as necessidades prementes do Serviço de Radioterapia do HCFMRP em implantar a técnica de irradiação de corpo inteiro e em realizar o controle de dose administrada ao paciente. Metodologia e Resultados: Diodos semicondutores foram caracterizados de acordo com o fator campo, angulação, taxa de dose, temperatura e fator bandeja, para obtenção dos fatores de correção. Verificou-se que a variação da resposta dos diodos com a temperatura, angulação e taxa de dose não foi significativa. Fatores campo foram calculados e registrados para campos de 3x3 cm 2 a 40x40cm 2 , onde se observou aumento na leitura do diodo com o aumento no campo. A resposta com a taxa de dose apr esentou pouca variação (de 100cGy/min para 300cGy/min a variação foi menor que 1,2%). O fator bandeja encontrado foi de 0,95±0,01 demonstrando que a presença da bandeja provoca diminuição na resposta do detector. Após a caracterização, os diodos foram calibrados em setup TBI para determinação dos fatores de calibração para cada espessura simulada do paciente (DLL). A dosimetria in vivo foi realizada em 3 pacientes submetidos ao tratamento de TBI do HCFMRP. A diferença percentual máxima entre as medidas com diodo e o valor nominal de dose foi de 3,6%, o que está de acordo com o recomendado pelo ICRU (+/- 5%). Os resultados demonstram a viabilidade e confiabilidade da técnica de dosimetria com diodos semicondutores para Controle de Qualidade de dose em tratamento de TBI. Ainda, dosímetros termoluminescentes foram caracterizados quanto à homogeneidade do grupo e a linearidade. Os fatores de calibração individuais foram encontrados e os dosímetros foram aplicados em simulações em setup TBI. Os cálculos de dose das simulações realizadas com os termoluminescentes inseridos nos orifícios de um OSA demonstraram concordância com os valores nominais de dose. Para as regiões do tórax superior e inferior, onde os TLD receberam doses mais elevadas (>150cGy), recomendou-se a utilização de compensadores de dose, para a prática clínica.Uma câmara de ionização foi utilizada como dosímetro de referência em todas as etapas de calibração e caracterização dos diodos e termoluminescentes. Conclusões: Este estudo mostrou que, para tratamentos de irradiação de corpo inteiro, quando o paciente estiver sendo preparado para um transplante de medula óssea, e o planejamento necessitar de uma grande eficácia na distribuição de dose, a metodologia com aplicações de dosímetros semicondutores apresenta-se como uma alternativa viável, precisa e de grande importância para o controle dosimétrico. Assim, ficou evidenciada a importância da utilização do diodo para o Controle de Qualidade, na avaliação da dos e a ser ministrada ao paciente, pelo menos em toda primeira fração de tratamento de TBI. Além disso, ficou demonstrada a aplicabilidade dos dosímetros termoluminescentes para controle dosimétrico, demonstrando o valor da dosimetria termoluminescente como um sistema de verificação de dose e sua eficácia como parte de um programa de garantia de qualidade em Radioterapia. A caracterização dos termoluminescentes evidenciou a possibilidade de aplicação da técnica TL em dosimetria in vivo. / Introduction: Radiation therapy is often used in cancer treatment, either as a single modality or in combination with other modalities, such as surgery and chemotherapy. Aiming to eliminate unwanted cells in the human body, radiation therapy uses ionizing radiation to cause destruction of tumor cells by absorbing the energy of the incident radiation. The main difficulty in radiation therapy is that tumor cells are not separately treated. The radiation damage is not restricted solely to tumor cells, but also affects normal cells. Therefore, it is essential that the radiation dose released in normal tissues is as low as possible to minimize the risk of side effects caused by radiotherapy treatments. Objectives: The objective of this work is the characterization of semiconductor dosimeters and thermoluminescent dosimeters and their applications in non -conventional radiotherapy techniques. After characterization it will be possible to implement the dosimeters as a system of in vivo dosimetry in radiotherapy with photon beam, to meet the pressing needs of the Radiotherapy Service of HCFMRP in deploying the technique of total body irradiation and make the control of dose administered to the patient . Methodology and Results: Semiconductor diodes were characterized according to the field factor, angle, dose rate, temperature and tray factor to obtain the correction factors. It was found that the variation of the response of the diodes with temperature, angle and dose rate was not significant. Field factors were calculated and recorded for fields from 3x3 cm 2 to 40x40cm 2 , wher e there was an increase in the reading of the diode with increasing field. The response with dose rate showed small variation (from 100cGy/min to 300cGy/min the variation was less than 1.2%). The tray factor was 0.95 ± 0.01 demonstrating that the tray decreases detector response. After characterization, the diodes were calibrated in TBI setup for determining the calibration factors for each simulated patient thickness (latero-lateral distance). The in vivo dosimetry was performed in 3 patients undergoing TBI treatment in HCFMRP. The maximum percentage difference between the measurements and the diode nominal dose was 3.6%, which is consistent with that recommended by ICRU (+ / - 5%). The results demonstrate the feasibility and reliability of the dosimetry technique with semiconductor diodes for dose quality control in TBI treatments. Still, dosimeters were characterized by group homogeneity and linearity. The calibration factors were found and individual dosimeters were applied in simulations with TBI setup. The dose calculation of simulations performed with the thermoluminescent inserted in holes of the phantom showed agreement with the nominal dose. For regions of the upper and lower thorax where TLD received higher doses (> 150cGy) it was recommended the use of compensating dose in clinic. An ionization chamber dosimeter was used as reference in all stages of calibration and characterization of diodes and thermoluminescents. Conclusions: This study showed that, for total body irradiation treatments, when the patient is being prepared for a bone marrow transplant, and planning requires a great effect on the dose distribution, the methodology with semiconductor dosimeters presented a viable alternative, and has great importance for the dosimetric control. The study proved the importance of diode semiconductors for quality control, for evaluation of the dose to be administered to the patient, at least throughout the first fraction of TBI treating. Furthermore, it was demonstrated the applicability of TLD for control quality, demonstrating the value of thermoluminescent dosimetry as a dose verification system and its effectiveness as part of a program of quality assurance in radiotherapy. The characterization of thermoluminescent showed the possibility of applying the TL technique in in vivo dosimetry.

Introdução: A Radioterapia é frequentemente utilizada no tratamento do câncer, seja como uma modalidade simples ou em combinação com outras modalidades, tais como a cirurgia e a quimioterapia. Com o objetivo de eliminar células não desejadas no organismo humano, utiliza-se de radiações ionizantes para provocar a destruição de células tumorais pela absorção da energia da radiação incidente. A principal dificuldade encontrada em radioterapia é que as células tumorais não são tratadas isoladamente, isto é, o dano da radiação não é restrito somente às células tumorais, mas afeta também as células normais. Assim sendo, é essencial que a dose de radiação liberada nos tecidos normais seja tão baixa quanto possível para minimizar o risco de efeitos colaterais provocados pelos tratamentos radioterápicos. Objetivos: O objetivo deste trabalho é a caracterização de dosímetros semicondutores e dosímetros termoluminescentes e suas aplicações em técnicas não convencionais de Radioterapia. A partir da caracterização será possível a implementação dos dosímetros como sistema de dosimetria in vivo em teleterapia com feixe de fótons, visando atender as necessidades prementes do Serviço de Radioterapia do HCFMRP em implantar a técnica de irradiação de corpo inteiro e em realizar o controle de dose administrada ao paciente. Metodologia e Resultados: Diodos semicondutores foram caracterizados de acordo com o fator campo, angulação, taxa de dose, temperatura e fator bandeja, para obtenção dos fatores de correção. Verificou-se que a variação da resposta dos diodos com a temperatura, angulação e taxa de dose não foi significativa. Fatores campo foram calculados e registrados para campos de 3x3 cm 2 a 40x40cm 2 , onde se observou aumento na leitura do diodo com o aumento no campo. A resposta com a taxa de dose apr esentou pouca variação (de 100cGy/min para 300cGy/min a variação foi menor que 1,2%). O fator bandeja encontrado foi de 0,95±0,01 demonstrando que a presença da bandeja provoca diminuição na resposta do detector. Após a caracterização, os diodos foram calibrados em setup TBI para determinação dos fatores de calibração para cada espessura simulada do paciente (DLL). A dosimetria in vivo foi realizada em 3 pacientes submetidos ao tratamento de TBI do HCFMRP. A diferença percentual máxima entre as medidas com diodo e o valor nominal de dose foi de 3,6%, o que está de acordo com o recomendado pelo ICRU (+/- 5%). Os resultados demonstram a viabilidade e confiabilidade da técnica de dosimetria com diodos semicondutores para Controle de Qualidade de dose em tratamento de TBI. Ainda, dosímetros termoluminescentes foram caracterizados quanto à homogeneidade do grupo e a linearidade. Os fatores de calibração individuais foram encontrados e os dosímetros foram aplicados em simulações em setup TBI. Os cálculos de dose das simulações realizadas com os termoluminescentes inseridos nos orifícios de um OSA demonstraram concordância com os valores nominais de dose. Para as regiões do tórax superior e inferior, onde os TLD receberam doses mais elevadas (>150cGy), recomendou-se a utilização de compensadores de dose, para a prática clínica.Uma câmara de ionização foi utilizada como dosímetro de referência em todas as etapas de calibração e caracterização dos diodos e termoluminescentes. Conclusões: Este estudo mostrou que, para tratamentos de irradiação de corpo inteiro, quando o paciente estiver sendo preparado para um transplante de medula óssea, e o planejamento necessitar de uma grande eficácia na distribuição de dose, a metodologia com aplicações de dosímetros semicondutores apresenta-se como uma alternativa viável, precisa e de grande importância para o controle dosimétrico. Assim, ficou evidenciada a importância da utilização do diodo para o Controle de Qualidade, na avaliação da dos e a ser ministrada ao paciente, pelo menos em toda primeira fração de tratamento de TBI. Além disso, ficou demonstrada a aplicabilidade dos dosímetros termoluminescentes para controle dosimétrico, demonstrando o valor da dosimetria termoluminescente como um sistema de verificação de dose e sua eficácia como parte de um programa de garantia de qualidade em Radioterapia. A caracterização dos termoluminescentes evidenciou a possibilidade de aplicação da técnica TL em dosimetria in vivo. / Introduction: Radiation therapy is often used in cancer treatment, either as a single modality or in combination with other modalities, such as surgery and chemotherapy. Aiming to eliminate unwanted cells in the human body, radiation therapy uses ionizing radiation to cause destruction of tumor cells by absorbing the energy of the incident radiation. The main difficulty in radiation therapy is that tumor cells are not separately treated. The radiation damage is not restricted solely to tumor cells, but also affects normal cells. Therefore, it is essential that the radiation dose released in normal tissues is as low as possible to minimize the risk of side effects caused by radiotherapy treatments. Objectives: The objective of this work is the characterization of semiconductor dosimeters and thermoluminescent dosimeters and their applications in non -conventional radiotherapy techniques. After characterization it will be possible to implement the dosimeters as a system of in vivo dosimetry in radiotherapy with photon beam, to meet the pressing needs of the Radiotherapy Service of HCFMRP in deploying the technique of total body irradiation and make the control of dose administered to the patient . Methodology and Results: Semiconductor diodes were characterized according to the field factor, angle, dose rate, temperature and tray factor to obtain the correction factors. It was found that the variation of the response of the diodes with temperature, angle and dose rate was not significant. Field factors were calculated and recorded for fields from 3x3 cm 2 to 40x40cm 2 , wher e there was an increase in the reading of the diode with increasing field. The response with dose rate showed small variation (from 100cGy/min to 300cGy/min the variation was less than 1.2%). The tray factor was 0.95 ± 0.01 demonstrating that the tray decreases detector response. After characterization, the diodes were calibrated in TBI setup for determining the calibration factors for each simulated patient thickness (latero-lateral distance). The in vivo dosimetry was performed in 3 patients undergoing TBI treatment in HCFMRP. The maximum percentage difference between the measurements and the diode nominal dose was 3.6%, which is consistent with that recommended by ICRU (+ / - 5%). The results demonstrate the feasibility and reliability of the dosimetry technique with semiconductor diodes for dose quality control in TBI treatments. Still, dosimeters were characterized by group homogeneity and linearity. The calibration factors were found and individual dosimeters were applied in simulations with TBI setup. The dose calculation of simulations performed with the thermoluminescent inserted in holes of the phantom showed agreement with the nominal dose. For regions of the upper and lower thorax where TLD received higher doses (> 150cGy) it was recommended the use of compensating dose in clinic. An ionization chamber dosimeter was used as reference in all stages of calibration and characterization of diodes and thermoluminescents. Conclusions: This study showed that, for total body irradiation treatments, when the patient is being prepared for a bone marrow transplant, and planning requires a great effect on the dose distribution, the methodology with semiconductor dosimeters presented a viable alternative, and has great importance for the dosimetric control. The study proved the importance of diode semiconductors for quality control, for evaluation of the dose to be administered to the patient, at least throughout the first fraction of TBI treating. Furthermore, it was demonstrated the applicability of TLD for control quality, demonstrating the value of thermoluminescent dosimetry as a dose verification system and its effectiveness as part of a program of quality assurance in radiotherapy. The characterization of thermoluminescent showed the possibility of applying the TL technique in in vivo dosimetry.

This paper investigates noise characteristics of detector preamplifier in electron scanning microscopes. Various preamplifiers are measured and the lowest noise level amplifier with good level of speed is used. Further measurement of individual levels of amplifier is done and proposed the most suitable way how to achieve the total amplification. By detailed measuring of amplifier structure are found all unpleasant factors that affect the image quality. On the basis of these dates amplifier hardware is adjusted, software solutions to improve image quality designed and model control implemented, which directly controls active elements of preamplifier so that noise for given amplification was the lowest and reached required amplification.

Semiconductor diode lasers are successful tools in atomic spectroscopy. They are routinely used in frequency conversion applications to develop devices that access regions of the spectrum not directly available. This thesis describes the practical application of novel violet diode laser systems and their possible inclusion in spectroscopic systems. The design, assembly and successful operation of a doubly resonant optical parametric oscillator is described. There is discussion of the spectral behaviour of the device and the potential for pumping with a violet diode laser. Methods to adapt the output from the solitary diode devices are demonstrated with the use of microlensed diode lasers and extended cavity configurations. Details of the current tuning, linewidth and smooth tuning characteristics of a number of the lasers used are given. A commercial violet diode laser is used within an extended cavity to measure the hyperfine structure of atomic indium from a hollow cathode galvatron source at room temperature. Stabilisation of the diode laser to a line from the indium spectrum is attempted. The remainder of the thesis is concerned with the development of techniques to deliver clearer and more precise spectral information about trace species. Microlensed red and violet diode lasers are used to generate light at 254nm via sum frequency generation for the direct detection and modulation spectroscopy of mercury vapour, with microlensed lasers with modulation allowing more accurate discrimination between spectral features than direct absorption measurements. In addition Raman tweezers modulation spectroscopy is undertaken to investigate polymer microspheres and biological cell samples where the use of the modulation technique demonstrated improvements in the acquisition time and clarity of spectra through increased signal to noise and rejection of background fluorescence effects. A comparison between the direct and modulation techniques for all the systems indicates the greater sensitivity of the modulation technique.