Mon objectif a consisté à élucider à l'échelle moléculaire le fonctionnement des systèmes enzymatiques complexes impliqués dans des processus de conversion d'énergie chez les êtres vivants. Je m'intéresse en particulier à la compréhension de deux étapes clés du fonctionnement commun à un grand nombre de ces systèmes, à savoir (i) les étapes d'interaction de ces complexes avec les quinones membranaires et (ii) les mécanismes catalytiques au niveau des sites actifs à molybdène. Le système modèle que j'étudie est la nitrate réductase A issue de la bactérie E. coli, en collaboration avec l'équipe du Dr. Axel Magalon (LCB, Marseille). Il permet la respiration anaérobie en catalysant la réduction du nitrate en nitrite et joue un rôle important dans le cycle biogéochimique de l'azote. Ma recherche vise en particulier à identifier les facteurs moléculaires qui permettent d'ajuster la réactivité de ces systèmes. Cela nécessite l'obtention d'informations structurales à l'échelle atomique sur ces complexes macromoléculaires. La stratégie utilisée a consisté dans un premier temps à générer des intermédiaires paramagnétiques clefs du fonctionnement de ces systèmes (radicaux semiquinones ou ion MoV). Puis j'ai caractérisé leurs propriétés rédox par potentiométrie suivie par spectroscopie RPE. Enfin, j'ai utilisé les techniques de spectroscopie RPE impulsionnelle à haute résolution, notamment la spectroscopie de corrélation des sous niveaux hyperfins (HYSCORE) pour sonder l'environnement magnétique local de ces intermédiaires à travers la détection des interactions nucléaires hyperfines et quadripolaires qui sont trop faibles pour être visibles par spectroscopie RPE classique. / The aim of my work is to elucidate at the molecular level the structure and the function of enzymes involved in energy conversion processes in living organisms. In particular, it is focused on the understanding of two important steps found in many of these systems, namely (i) their interaction with membrane quinones acting as electron/proton shuttles and (ii) the catalytic mechanism at the molybdenum active site. The nitrate reductase A (NarGHI) from the bacterium Escherichia coli is used as a model for these studies. This membrane-bound complex reduces nitrate into nitrite during anaerobic respiration and plays therefore an important role in the global nitrogen cycle. The goal of my research is mainly devoted to the identification of the molecular factors tuning the reactivity of this system at the two active sites. For this purpose, I mainly relied on the structural characterization of key paramagnetic intermediates e.g. semiquinone radicals or Mo(V) ion using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy in combination with rédox potentiometry. High resolution pulse EPR methods, especially Hyperfine Sublevel Correlation (HYSCORE) spectroscopy, were used to probe their local environment through the detection of hyperfine (and eventually quadrupole interactions) to nearby magnetic nuclei that are otherwise too weak to be measurable in conventional continuous wave EPR spectroscopy.

A growing number of flavoprotein systems have been observed to bifurcate pairs of electrons. Flavin-based electron bifurcation (FBEB) results in products with greater reducing power than that of the reactants with less reducing power. Highly reducing electrons at low reduction midpoint potential are required for life processes of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic processes. For electron bifurcation to function, the semiquinone (SQ) redox intermediate needs to be destabilized in the protein to suppress its ability to trap electrons. This dissertation examines SQ suppression across a number of flavin systems for the purpose of better understanding the nature of SQ suppression within FBEB and elucidates potential mechanistic roles of SQ. The major achievement of this work is advancing the understanding of SQ suppression and its utility in flavoproteins with the capacity to bifurcate pairs of electrons. Much of these achievements are highlighted in Chapter 6. To contextualize these mechanistic studies, we examined the kinetic and thermodynamic properties of non-bifurcating flavoproteins (Chapters 2 and 3) as well as bifurcating flavoproteins (Chapters 4 and 5). Proteins were selected as models for SQ suppression with the aim of elucidating the role of an intermediate SQ in bifurcation. The chemical reactions of flavins and those mediated by flavoproteins play critical roles in the bioenergetics of all lifeforms, both aerobic and anaerobic. We highlight our findings in the context of electron bifurcation, the recently discovered third form of biological energy conservation. Bifurcating NADH-dependent ferredoxin-NADP+ oxidoreductase I (Nfn) and the non-bifurcating flavoproteins nitroreductase, NADH oxidase, and flavodoxin were studied by transient absorption spectroscopy to compare electron transfer rates and mechanisms in the picosecond range. Different mechanisms were found to dominate SQ decay in the different proteins, producing lifetimes ranging over 3 orders of magnitude. The presence of a short-lived SQ alone was found to be insufficient to infer bifurcating activity. We established a model wherein the short SQ lifetime in Nfn results from efficient electron propagation. Such mechanisms of SQ decay may be a general feature of redox active site ensembles able to carry out bifurcation. We also investigated the proposed bifurcating electron transfer flavoprotein (Etf) from Pyrobaculum aerophilum (Pae), a hyperthermophilic archaeon. Unlike other Etfs, we observed a stable and strong charge transfer band (λmax= 724 nm) for Pae’s Etf upon reduction by NADH. Using a series of reductive titrations to probe bounds for the reduction midpoint potential of the two flavins, we argue that the heterodimer alone could participate in a bifurcation mechanism.

2-Nitropropane dioxygenase from Hansenula mrakii is a flavin-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of anionic nitroalkanes into the corresponding carbonyl compounds and nitrite, with oxygen as the electron acceptor. Although nitroalkanes are anticipated to be toxic and carcinogenic, they are used widely in chemical industry for a quick and effective way of synthesizing common reagents. Consequently, the biochemical and biophysical analysis of 2-nitropropane dioxyganase has a potential for bioremediation purposes. In this study, recombinant enzyme is purified to high levels, allowing for detailed characterization. The biochemical analysis of 2-nitropropane dioxygenase presented in this study has established that enzyme utilizes alkyl nitronates as substrates by forming an anionic flavosemiquinone in catalysis. The enzyme is inhibited by halide ions, does not contain iron and has a positive charge located close to the N(1)-C(2)=O locus of the isoalloxazine moiety of the FMN cofactor.

Nitronate monooxygenase (E.C. 1.13.11.16), formerly known as 2-nitropropane dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.32), is a flavin dependent enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of nitronates to their corresponding carbonyl compounds and nitrite. Despite the fact that the enzyme was first isolated from Neurospora crassa 60 years ago, the biochemical and physiological properties of nitronate monooxygenase have remained largely elusive. This dissertation will present the work that established both the catalytic mechanism and physiological role of the fungal enzyme. The biological and biochemical properties of propionate-3-nitronate, the recently discovered physiological substrate for nitronate monooxygenase, will be extensively reviewed. The nitronate is produced by a variety of variety leguminous plants and fungi and is a potent and irreversible inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase. Nitronate monooxygenase allows N. crassa to overcome the toxicity of propionate-3-nitronate as demonstrated by in vivo studies of the yeast, which showed that the wild-type can grow in the presence of the toxin whereas a knock out mutant that lacks the gene encoding for the enzyme could not. In addition to establishing the physiological role of nitronate monooxygenase, the work presented here demonstrates that the catalytic mechanism of the enzyme involves the formation of an anionic flavosemiquinone intermediate. This intermediate is stabilized by the protonated form of an active site histidine residue (His-196) that acts as an electrostatic catalyst for the reaction as demonstrated by pH studies of the reductive half reaction of the enzyme. Histidine 196 also serves as the catalytic base for the reaction of the enzyme with nitroethane as substrate as revealed through mutagenesis studies in which the residue was replaced with an asparagine. The kinetic implications of branching of reaction intermediates in enzymatic catalysis are also demonstrated through studies of the kinetic isotope effects of nitronate monooxygenase with 1,1-[2H2]-nitroethane as substrate. Finally the use of competitive inhibitors as a probe of enzyme structure will be presented through a study of the inhibition of nitronate monooxygenase with mono-valent inorganic ions. The dissertation will close with unpublished work on the enzyme and concluding remarks concerning the biochemistry and physiology of nitronate monooxygenase.

Neurotoxins, in the general sense, represent novel chemical structures which when administered in vivo or in vitro, are capable of producing neuronal damage or neurodegeneration - with some degree of specificity relating to neuronal phenotype or populations of neurons with specific characteristics (.e., receptor type, ion channel type, astrocyte-dependence, etc.). The broader term 'neurotoxin' includes this categorization but extends the term to include intra- or extracellular mediators involved in the neurodegenerative event, including necrotic and apoptotic factors. Moreover, as it is recognized that astrocytes are essential supportive satellite cells for neurons, and because damage to these cells ultimately affects neuronal function, the term 'neurotoxin' might reasonably be extended to include those chemical species which also adversely affect astrocytes. This review is intended to highlight developments that have occurred in the field of 'neurotoxins' during the past 5 years, including MPTP/MPP+, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), meth-amphetamine; salsolinol; leukoaminochrome-o-semi-quinone; rotenone; iron; paraquat; HPP+; veratridine; soman; glutamate; kainate; 3-nitropropionic acid; peroxynitrite anion; and metals (copper, manganese, lead, mercury). Neurotoxins represent tools to help elucidate intra- and extra-cellular processes involved in neuronal necrosis and apoptosis, so that drugs can be developed towards targets that interrupt the processes leading towards neuronal death.