Non-coding DNA in the human genome is widely studied to investigate its effect on coding DNA and gene expression. Non-coding DNA contains cis-regulatory elements that influence transcription of genes upstream, downstream, or nearby. These regulatory elements have largely been studied as enhancers that promote the transcription of genes. To explore these regulatory elements as silencers, we chose validated bifunctional elements to study their silencing capability and their chromatin markers. We used chromatin immunoprecipitation methods with dCas9 to target these elements using single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs). We experimented with various cloning methods to insert dCas9 into the pUAS vector. We initially planned to use the Gibson Assembly method, but after no success, we tried site-directed mutagenesis and traditional cloning with restriction enzymes. We were able to successfully insert dCas9 into the pUAS vector with traditional cloning, and we were then able to inject the construct into Drosophila melanogaster. We designed sgRNAs to target desired elements of DNA that we chose to study as cis-regulatory elements. The sgRNA sequences were cloned into the pCFD5 vector and injected into another line of flies. The transgenic flies containing the pUAS/dCas9 plasmid will then be crossed with the flies containing the pCFD5/sgRNA to develop offspring that express the target elements and could undergo chromatin pulldown to examine the bifunctional regulation of these DNA elements in cells. Results from a quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay on Drosophila expressing the cloned pUAS vector with dCas9 and a sgRNA for the white gene showed chromatin pulldown efficiency and successful transfection. The Drosophila chromatin targeted by the sgRNAs will be pulled down, solubilized, and then analyzed on a western blot to screen for chromatin modifications, primarily histone modifications. We can then identify chromatin markers associated with elements when they act as silencers in the mesoderm versus when they act as non- mesodermal enhancers. We can also determine if the silencer acts by interacting with a promoter or with an enhancer to repress gene expression. If ENCODE can profile the data found in this project, the chromatin markers can act as a predictive tool for the identification of silencers.

Many of the cutting-edge innovations on the CRISPR/Cas9 system involve the use of complex sgRNA libraries. For example, such libraries have recently been used in functional genomics applications to screen for specific genes in both cell lines and living organisms, as well as in subcellular imaging to fluorescently label chromatin in living cells. However, chemically synthesizing customized libraries can be cost prohibitive, requires precise genomic information, and can takes several weeks. We developed a rapid and efficient enzymatic method to generate sgRNA libraries from arbitrary DNA substrates, significantly reducing the cost of library generation. A type IIS restriction enzyme binding site was incorporated directly into the sgRNA scaffold sequence without affecting the catalytic properties of the Cas9 complex, resulting in a simple method that generates high fidelity sgRNA libraries. Additionally, the library is constructed on the surface of streptavidin coated magnetic beads and a strand displacing polymerase is used to elute DNA from the beads, reducing the loss of material and simplifying purification between steps. We used this method to generate two sgRNA libraries. The first targets the entire E. coli genome, and the second targets genes expressed in the developing zebrafish heart. This second library will be used in a forward genetic screen in zebrafish to identify genes underlying heart defects. These complex sgRNA libraries show the utility of the method in generating libraries from DNA from any species, ranging from prokaryotes like bacteria, to eukaryotes including plants and animals.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] En el contexto actual de cambio climático, resulta urgente desarrollar nuevas tecnologías de fitomejoramiento que garanticen el suministro de alimentos a una población en rápido crecimiento. La reciente aparición de herramientas basadas en las repeticiones palindrómicas cortas agrupadas y regularmente interespaciadas (del acrónimo CRISPR en inglés) y sus proteínas asociadas (Cas) ha revolucionado la edición genómica dirigida, resultando muy prometedora tanto para la biología vegetal básica como para la mejora de cultivos. Los sistemas CRISPR-Cas más comunes incluyen una endonucleasa Cas y un ARN guía que determina específicamente la secuencia diana a editar en el genoma. El suministro de los componentes de reacción CRISPR-Cas a una célula vegetal es un paso crucial que influye notablemente en la velocidad y la eficiencia de edición. Los enfoques convencionales se basan en el suministro de dichos componentes mediante tecnologías de transformación o la expresión transitoria en protoplastos, siendo ambos procesos laboriosos que pueden acarrear problemas legales. Alternativamente, estudios recientes han destacado el potencial de virus de ARN para ser utilizados como vectores de expresión transitoria de los componentes de reacción CRISPR-Cas en plantas, también conocido como edición genómica inducida por virus (VIGE en inglés). Puesto que la aplicabilidad de cada vector viral se encuentra limitada por sus propiedades moleculares y un rango específico de plantas huésped, esta Tesis ha tenido como objetivo principal expandir y mejorar las herramientas disponibles para el VIGE. En primer lugar, diseñamos un vector derivado del Virus X de la patata (PVX; género Potexvirus; familia Alphaflexiviridae) para suministrar múltiples ARNs guía a una línea transformada de Nicotiana benthamiana que expresaba constitutivamente la nucleasa Cas9 de Streptococcus pyogenes. Mediante el vector derivado de PVX, conseguimos editar genes endógenos de la planta huésped de manera eficiente, IV produciendo casi un 80% de modificaciones en tejidos de plantas adultas. Curiosamente, PVX permitió la expresión simultánea de matrices de ARNs guía no espaciados, lo cual resultó en la edición de múltiples genes en pocos días. Obtuvimos progenies editadas con una alta tasa de mutaciones bialélicas hereditarias tanto de plantas regeneradas a partir de tejido infectado como de semillas de plantas infectadas; en este último caso, el ARN guía fue previamente fusionado a un módulo de ARN móvil. Dado que PVX no se transmite por semillas, todas las plántulas editadas estaban libres de virus. A fin de expandir las estrategias basadas en virus de plantas para una edición genómica sin transformación, seguidamente desarrollamos un sistema de dos vectores virales compatibles para el suministro simultáneo de todos los componentes de reacción CRISPR-Cas en la planta. Modificamos el Virus del grabado del tabaco (TEV; género Potyvirus; familia Potyviridae) para que expresase una nucleasa Cas12a y, en combinación con el envío de ARN guía mediante PVX, logramos la edición sin transformación de una línea de N. benthamiana que expresaba constitutivamente la NIb del potyvirus. Además, demostramos que un único vector PVX era capaz de proporcionar la actividad de NIb, así como de suministrar el ARN guía para la edición genómica en plantas silvestres. En conjunto, el trabajo realizado en esta Tesis contribuye a la expansión de las herramientas actuales para VIGE. La amplia gama de huéspedes que poseen tanto PVX como TEV, particularmente entre solanáceas, postula a ambos virus como candidatos muy prometedores para futuras aplicaciones en genómica funcional y mejora de cultivos. / [CA] En el context actual de canvi climàtic, resulta urgent desenvolupar noves tecnologies de fitomillorament que garantisquen el subministrament d'aliments a una població en ràpid creixement. La recent aparició d'eines basades en les repeticions palindròmiques curtes agrupades i regularment interespaiades (de l'acrònim CRISPR en anglés) i les seues proteïnes associades (Cas) ha revolucionat l'edició genòmica dirigida, resultant molt prometedora tant per a la biologia vegetal bàsica com per a la millora de cultius. Els sistemes CRISPR-Cas més comuns inclouen una endonucleasa Cas i un ARN guia que determina específicament la seqüència diana a editar en el genoma. El subministrament dels components de reacció CRISPR-Cas a una cèl·lula vegetal és un pas crucial que influeix notablement en la velocitat i l'eficiència d'edició. Els enfocaments convencionals es basen en el subministrament d'aquests components mitjançant tecnologies de transformació o l'expressió transitòria en protoplasts, sent tots dos processos laboriosos que poden implicar problemes legals. Alternativament, estudis recents han destacat el potencial de virus d'ARN per a ser utilitzats com a vectors d'expressió transitòria dels components de reacció CRISPR-Cas en plantes, també conegut com a edició genòmica induïda per virus (VIGE en anglés). Com que l'aplicabilitat de cada vector viral es troba limitada per les seues propietats mol·leculars i un rang específic de plantes hoste, aquesta Tesi ha tingut com a objectiu principal expandir i millorar les eines disponibles per al VIGE. En primer lloc, dissenyem un vector derivat del Virus X de la creïlla (PVX; gènere Potexvirus; família Alphaflexiviridae) per a subministrar múltiples ARNs guia a una línia transformada de Nicotiana benthamiana que expressava constitutivament la nucleasa Cas9 de Streptococcus pyogenes. Mitjançant el vector derivat de PVX, aconseguim editar gens endògens de la planta hoste de manera eficient, produint quasi un 80% de modificacions en teixits de plantes adultes. Curiosament, PVX va permetre l'expressió VI simultània de matrius d'ARNs guia no espaiats, la qual cosa va resultar en l'edició de múltiples gens en pocs dies. Vam obtindre progènies editades amb una alta taxa de mutacions bial·lèliques hereditàries tant de plantes regenerades a partir de teixit infectat com de llavors de plantes infectades; en aquest últim cas, l'ARN guia va ser prèviament fusionat a un mòdul d'ARN mòbil. Atés que PVX no es transmet per llavors, totes les plàntules editades estaven lliures de virus. A fi d'expandir les estratègies basades en virus de plantes per a una edició genòmica sense transformació, seguidament desenvolupem un sistema de dos vectors virals compatibles per al subministrament simultani de tots els components de reacció CRISPR-Cas en la planta. Modifiquem el Virus del gravat del tabac (TEV; gènere Potyvirus; família Potyviridae) perquè expressara una nucleasa Cas12a i, en combinació amb l'enviament d'ARN guia mitjançant PVX, aconseguim l'edició sense transformació d'una línia de N. benthamiana que expressava constitutivament la NIb del potyvirus. A més, vam demostrar que un únic vector PVX era capaç de proporcionar l'activitat de NIb, així com de subministrar l'ARN guia per a l'edició genòmica en plantes silvestres. En conjunt, el treball realitzat en aquesta Tesi contribueix a l'expansió de les eines actuals per a VIGE. L'àmplia gamma d'hostes que posseeixen tant PVX com TEV, particularment entre solanàcies, postula a tots dos virus com a candidats molt prometedors per a futures aplicacions en genòmica funcional i millora de cultius. / [EN] Innovative breeding technologies are urgently needed to ensure food supply to a rapidly growing population in the face of climate change. The recent emergence of tools based on the clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins has revolutionized targeted genome editing, thus holding great promise to both basic plant science and precision crop breeding. Most common CRISPR-Cas arrangements include a Cas endonuclease and a single guide RNA (sgRNA) that determines the specific target sequence to edit in the genome. The delivery of CRISPR-Cas reaction components within a plant cell is a crucial step that greatly influences editing speed and efficiency. Conventional approaches rely on supplying editing reaction components by transformation technologies or transient delivery to protoplasts, both of which are laborious processes that can raise legal concerns. Alternatively, recent studies have highlighted the potential of plant RNA viruses as transient delivery vectors of CRISPR-Cas reaction components, following the so-called virus-induced genome editing (VIGE). Since the applicability of each viral vector is limited to its molecular biology properties and a specific host range, the main objective of this Thesis has been to expand and improve the available toolbox for VIGE. First, we engineered a vector derived from Potato virus X (PVX; genus Potexvirus; family Alphaflexiviridae) to deliver multiple sgRNAs in a Nicotiana benthamiana transformed line constitutively expressing Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9. Using the PVX derived vector, host endogenous genes were efficiently targeted, producing nearly 80% indels in the tissues of adult plants. Interestingly, PVX allowed the simultaneous expression of unspaced sgRNA arrays, achieving highly efficient multiplex editing in a few days. We obtained edited progeny with a high rate of heritable bi-allelic mutations either from plants regenerated from infected tissue or infected plant seeds; in the latter II case, the sgRNA was previously fused to a mobile RNA module. Hence, since PVX is not seed-transmitted, all edited seedlings were virus-free. Aiming to expand the virus-based toolbox for transformation-free editing, we next developed a two-compatible virus vector system for the simultaneous delivery of all CRISPR-Cas reaction components in the plant. Tobacco etch virus (TEV; genus Potyvirus; family Potyviridae) was engineered to express a Cas12a nuclease, and in combination with PVX-assisted sgRNA delivery, we achieved successful transformation-free genome editing in a N. benthamiana line constitutively expressing potyviral NIb. Moreover, we demonstrated that a single PVX vector can supply the potyviral NIb activity as well as perform sgRNA delivery for genome editing in wild-type plants. Altogether, the work performed in this Thesis contributes to the enrichment of the current VIGE toolbox. The wide host range that both PVX and TEV possess, particularly among solanaceous species, postulates them as promising candidates for future applications in VIGE-mediated functional genomics and precision breeding. / Uranga Ruiz De Eguino, M. (2022). Engineering Viral Vectors for CRISPR-Cas Mediated Genome Editing in Plants [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/183374 / TESIS / Compendio

Recent advances with the bacterial CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) defense system as genome editing tools have opened a new avenue for targeting disease-causing mutations. The programmability of the Cas9 endonuclease by RNA makes it a potentially powerful therapeutic tool to correct such mutations. The CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of a Cas9 endonuclease that is guided by RNA (sgRNA) to create double-stranded breaks in a target DNA segment complementary to the guide. This process is dependent on a 2-8 nucleotide sequence (called PAM) that is adjacent to the target and functions as a Cas9 binding signal. Each Cas9 ortholog recognizes a unique PAM. However, factors such as the size of Cas9 or the frequency of its PAM sequence in the genome have hindered its clinical use. The Cas9 from Streptococcus pyogenes (SpyCas9) is commonly used in research because its PAM (NGG, where “N” symbolizes any nucleotide) is present every ~8 bp in the genome, providing robust targeting potential. However, it is too large to fit into typical viral vectors used for in vivo delivery, namely adeno-associated vectors (AAV). While several Cas9 orthologs have been characterized, none satisfied the need for a compact, accurate Cas9 with a short PAM. In this thesis, we use two approaches to identify new compact Cas9 orthologs with small PAMs, one using anti-CRISPR proteins and one by searching through closely related Cas9s. First, we use the presence of anti-CRISPRs (naturally occurring, phage-encoded peptides that inhibit CRISPR-Cas9 described in chapter 2) in a genome as indicators of Cas9s that may be highly active. These orthologs come with the added advantage of having inhibitors that can be used as off-switches. We characterize four Cas9s that are targeted by anti-CRISPR proteins and show that they recognize diverse PAMs in vitro. One of the four Cas9’s, namely HpaCas9 from Haemophilus parainfluenzae, induces efficient genome editing in mammalian cells. However, its long N4GATTT PAM does not satisfy the short PAM criterion. For our second approach, we asked whether closely related Cas9 orthologs with drastically different PAM-interacting domains (PIDs, the domain responsible for PAM recognition) recognize different PAMs, and if so, can be used for genome editing. To this end, we exploited natural variation in the PID of closely related Cas9s to identify a compact ortholog from Neisseria meningitidis (Nme2Cas9). Nme2Cas9 recognizes a simple dinucleotide PAM (N4CC) that provides a high target site density. All-in-one AAV delivery of Nme2Cas9 with a guide RNA into adult mouse liver produces efficient genome editing and reduced serum cholesterol with exceptionally high specificity. We further expand our single-AAV platform to pre-implanted zygotes for streamlined generation of genome-edited mice. Finally, we show preliminary data on how CRISPR-Cas9 can be used for therapeutic genome editing for Amytrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Our new findings promise to accelerate the development of genome editing tools for biomedical and therapeutic applications.

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