The effect of surface finish on fatigue limit of two types of austenitic stainless steels (AISI 304L and AISI 316L) has been investigated. Fatigue specimens having two different surface conditions were obtained by changing the final cutting condition; annealing was performed to separate the residual stress effects from surface roughness. Electropolished samples were tested as a reference for each material. A generic mechanistic model for short fatigue crack propagation proposed by Navarroand Rios (N-R model) was implemented to assess its suitability for predicting the fatigue behaviour of specimens with various controlled surface conditions, obtained by machining. The surface/material properties required to implement this model were obtained by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), surface profilometry, hardness testing and X-ray diffraction residual stress measurement. The fatigue limits were determined using rotating-bending by means of the staircase method. The fatigue limits predicted by the N-R fatigue model were compared with the results of the fatigue tests. There was no agreement between the prediction and observations, indicating that the original form of the N-R model is not appropriate for austenitic stainless steels. In AISI 304L, the surface residual stresses are the dominant parameter, allowing prediction of the effects of machining on fatigue resistance while, the surface roughness developed by machining has no significant effect. In AISI 316L, the effect of surface roughness is found to be negligible, with a weaker effect of surface residual stress than has been observed for AISI 304L. Crack nuclei in run-out (>107 cycles) fatigue tests were observed to arrest at twins and martensite packets, developed by fatigue in AISI 316L and AISI 304L, respectively. Good agreement with experiments was achieved by using a modification to the fatigue model, which takes account of the observed effect of the plastic deformation on the microstructure.

The behaviors of short fatigue crack (SFC) propagation through grain boundaries (GBs) were monitored during high cycle fatigue in an Al-Li alloy AA8090. The growth behaviors of SFCs were found to be mainly controlled by the twist components (α) of crack plane deflection across each of up to first 20 GBs along the crack path. The crack plane twist at the GB can result in a resistance against SFC growth; therefore SFC propagation preferred to follow a path with minimum α at each GB. In addition to the grain orientation, the tilting of GB could also affect α. An experiment focusing on quantifying GB-resistance was conducted on an Al-Cu alloy AA2024-T351. With a focused ion beam (FIB) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), the micro-notches were made in front of the selected GBs which had a wide range of α, followed by monitoring the interaction of crack propagation from the notches with the GBs during fatigue. The crack growth rate was observed to decrease at each GB it had passed; and such growth-rate decrease was proportional to α. The resistance of the GB was determined to vary as a Weibull-type function of α. Based on these discoveries, a microstructure-based 3-D model was developed to quantify the SFC growth in high-strength Al alloys, allowing the prediction of crack front advancement in 3-D and the quantification of growth rate along the crack front. The simulation results yielded a good agreement with the experimental results about the SFC growth rate on the surface of the AA8090 Al alloy. The model was also used to predict the life of SFC growth statistically in different textures, showing potential application to texture design of alloys. Fatigue crack initiation at constituent particles (β-phase) was preliminarily studied in the AA2024-T351 Al alloy. Cross-sectioning with the FIB revealed that the 3-D geometry, especially the thickness, of fractured constituent particles (β-phase) was the key factor controlling the driving force for micro-crack growth. The resistance to micro-crack growth, mainly associated with crack plane twist at the particle/matrix interface, also influenced the growth behaviors of the micro-cracks at the particles on the surface.

A austenita retida está sempre presente na microestrutura de camada cementada de aços, em maior ou menor quantidade. Como é uma fase dúctil comparada à martensita, sua presença tem sido alvo de muita controvérsia. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre a influência da austenita retida na propagação de trincas curtas por fadiga em camada cementada de aço SAE 8620. Foram feitos ensaios de fadiga por flexão em quatro pontos, a temperatura ambiente, em corpos de prova sem entalhe com três níveis de amplitude de tensão e razão de tensões de 0,1. Através de diferentes ciclos de cementação e tratamentos térmicos, foram obtidas camadas cementadas com quatro níveis de austenita retida na microestrutura. O teor de austenita retida foi medido através da técnica de difração de Raios-X. Trincas superficiais foram monitoradas por meio da técnica de réplicas de acetato. Como resultados foram obtidos tamanho de trinca em função do número de ciclos e taxa de crescimento de trincas curtas. Corpos de prova com maiores níveis de austenita retida apresentaram maior vida em fadiga. / The retained austenite is always present in case carburized steel microstructure in small or high percentages. Since it is a ductile phase, its presence has long been a controversial subject. The influence of retained austenite on short fatigue crack propagation in case carburized SAE 8620 steel was studied in this work. Four-point-bend fatigue tests were carried out at room temperature in specimens without notch using three levels of stress range and a stress ratio of 0.1. Four different amount of retained austenite in the case carburized microstructure were obtained through different cycles of carburizing and heat treating. The retained austenite content was measured by X-ray technique, and the surface short crack growth was monitored by means of acetate replication technique. Crack length versus number of cycles and crack growth rate versus mean crack length were obtained as results. Specimens with higher levels of retained austenite in the carburized case showed longer fatigue life.

Built on the recent successes in understanding the crystallographic mechanism for short fatigue crack (SFC) growth across a grain boundary (GB) and developing an experimental method to quantify the GB resistance against short crack growth, a microstructure-based model was developed in this study to simulate the growth behaviors of SFCs in 3-D, by taking into account both the driving force and resistance along at each point along the crack front in an alloy. It was found that the GB resistance was a Weibull function of the minimum twist angle of crack deflection at the boundary in AA2024-T3 Al alloys. In the digital microstructure used in the model, the resistance at each GB that the short crack interacted with could be calculated, as long as the orientations of grains and the crack were known. In the model, an influence function accounting for the overlapping effect of the resistance from the neighboring grain boundaries was proposed, allowing for calculation of the total resistance distribution along the crack front. In order to overcome the time consuming problem for the existing equations to derive the distribution of stress intensity factor along the crack front under cyclic loading, an analytical equation was proposed to quantify the stress intensity factor distribution along an irregular shape planar crack. By introducing two shape-dependent factors, the fractured area and the perimeter of the crack front, the newly proposed equation could readily and accurately derive the stress intensity factor distribution along the crack front that had large curvatures and singularities. Finally, a microscopic-scale Paris’ equation was proposed that took into account both the driving force, i.e., stress intensity factor range, and the total resistance to calculate the growth rate at each point along crack front. The model developed in this work was able to incorporate microstructure, such as grain size and shape, and texture into simulation of SFC growth in 3-D. It was capable of simulating all the anomalous growth behaviors of SFCs, such as the marked scatters in growth rate measurement, retardation and arrest at grain boundaries, and crack plane deflection at grain boundaries, etc. The model was used to simulate the growth behaviors of SFCs initiated from prefractured constituent particles in order to interpret the multi-site fatigue crack initiation observed in AA2024-T351 Al alloys. Three types of SFCs were observed initiating from these particles, namely, type-I non-propagating cracks; type-II cracks which were arrested soon after propagating into the matrix; and type-III propagating cracks. To quantitatively study the 3-D effects of particle geometry and micro-texture on the growth behaviors of micro-cracks in these particles, rectangular micro-notches with different dimensions were fabricated using focused ion beam in the selected grains on the T-S planes in AA2024-T351 Al alloys, to mimic the pre-fractured particles in these alloys. Knowing the notch dimensions or particle shape, grain orientation and GB geometry, the simulated crack growth behaviors were consistent with the experimental observations, and the model was able to verify that the three types of cracks evolved from these particles were mainly associated with the thickness and width of the pre-fractured particles, though the particle geometry and grain orientation could also affect the behaviors of fatigue crack initiation at the particles. When the widths of the particles were less than 15 μm, like in most high strength Al alloys, the simulated results confirmed that the crack type was only associated with the particle thickness, consistent with the experimental results in AA2024-T351 alloys with a strong rolling texture. The lives for the SFCs to reach 0.5 mm in length were quantified with the model in the AA2024 alloy, revealing that there was a bimodal distribution in the life spectrum calculated, with the longer life peak being related to larger twist angles of crack deflection at the first GB the cracks encountered and the shorter life peak being associated with small twist angles (< 5°) at the first GB. The model further demonstrated the influence of grain structure on SFC growth by considering two different grain structures with the same initial short crack, namely, a layered grain structure with only the primary GBs perpendicular to the surface and the layered grains with both primary and secondary GBs. Depending on their positions and geometry, the secondary GBs could still exert a strong retarding effect on SFC growth on surface. The model was validated by matching to the growth rate measured on surface of a SFC in an AA8090 Al-Li alloy. Good consistency was achieved between the simulated and experimentally measured growth rates when both the primary and secondary GBs were considered in the model. The model developed in this study exhibits its potential applications to optimizing the microstructure and texture in alloys to enhance their fatigue resistance against fatigue crack growth, and to satisfactory life prediction of engineering alloys.

The fatigue of materials and structures is a subject that has been under investigation for almost 160 years; yet reliable fatigue life predictions are still more of an empirical art than a science. The traditional safe-life approach to fatigue design is based upon the total time to failure of a virtually defect free component. This approach is heavily reliant on the use of safety factors and empirical equations, and therefore much scatter in the fatigue life predictions is normally observed. Furthermore, the safe-life approach is unsuitable for many important applications such as aircraft, pressure vessels, welded structures, and microelectronic devices. In these applications the existence of initial defects is practically unavoidable and the time of propagation from an initial defect to final failure is comparable with the total life of the component. In the early 1970’s, the aircraft industry pioneered a new approach for the analysis of fatigue crack growth, known as damage tolerant design. This approach utilises fracture mechanics principles to consider the propagation of fatigue cracks from an initial crack length until final fracture, or a critical crack length, is reached. Since the first implementation of damage tolerant design, much research and development has been undertaken. In particular, theoretical and experimental fracture mechanics techniques have been utilised for the investigation of a wide variety of fatigue crack growth phenomena. One such example is the retardation and acceleration in crack growth rate caused by spike overloads or underloads. It is generally accepted, however, that the current level of understanding of fatigue crack growth phenomena and the adequacy of fatigue life prediction techniques are still far from satisfactory. This thesis theoretically investigates various non-linear individual and interaction phenomena associated with fatigue crack growth. Specifically, the effect of plate thickness on crack growth under constant amplitude loading, crack growth retardation due to an overload cycle, and small crack growth from sharp notches are considered. A new semianalytical method is developed for the investigations, which utilises the distributed dislocation technique and the well-known concept of plasticity-induced crack closure. The effects of plate thickness are included through the use of first-order plate theory and a fundamental solution for an edge dislocation in plate of arbitrary thickness. Numerical results are obtained via the application of Gauss-Chebyshev quadrature and an iterative procedure. The developed methods are verified against previously published theoretical and experimental data. The elastic out-of-plane stress and displacement fields are first investigated using the developed method and are found to be in very good agreement with past experimental results and finite element simulations. Crack tip plasticity is then introduced by way of a strip-yield model. The effects of thickness on the crack tip plasticity zone and plasticity-induced crack closure are studied for both small and large-scale yielding conditions. It is shown that, in general, an increase in plate thickness will lead to a reduction in the extent of the plasticity and associated crack closure, and therefore an increase in the crack growth rates. This observation is in agreement with many findings of past experimental and theoretical studies. An incremental crack growth scheme is implemented into the developed method to allow for the investigation of variable amplitude loading and small fatigue crack growth. The case of a single tensile overload is first investigated for a range of overload ratios and plate thicknesses. This situation is of practical importance as an overload cycle can significantly increase the service life of a cracked component by temporarily retarding the crack growth. Next to be studied is growth of physically small cracks from sharp notches. Fatigue cracks typically initiate from stress concentrations, such as notches, and can grow at rates higher than as predicted for a long established crack. This can lead to non-conservative estimates for the total fatigue life of a structural component. For both the overload and small crack cases, the present theoretical predictions correlate well with past experimental results for a range of materials. Furthermore, trends observed in the experiments match those of the predictions and can be readily explained through use of crack closure arguments. This thesis is presented in the form of a collection of published or submitted journal articles that are the result of research by the author. These nine articles have been chosen to best demonstrate the development and application of the new theoretical techniques. Additional background information and an introduction into the chosen field of research are provided in order to establish the context and significance of this work. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1349588 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Mechanical Engineering, 2008

A austenita retida está sempre presente na microestrutura de camada cementada de aços, em maior ou menor quantidade. Como é uma fase dúctil comparada à martensita, sua presença tem sido alvo de muita controvérsia. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre a influência da austenita retida na propagação de trincas curtas por fadiga em camada cementada de aço SAE 8620. Foram feitos ensaios de fadiga por flexão em quatro pontos, a temperatura ambiente, em corpos de prova sem entalhe com três níveis de amplitude de tensão e razão de tensões de 0,1. Através de diferentes ciclos de cementação e tratamentos térmicos, foram obtidas camadas cementadas com quatro níveis de austenita retida na microestrutura. O teor de austenita retida foi medido através da técnica de difração de Raios-X. Trincas superficiais foram monitoradas por meio da técnica de réplicas de acetato. Como resultados foram obtidos tamanho de trinca em função do número de ciclos e taxa de crescimento de trincas curtas. Corpos de prova com maiores níveis de austenita retida apresentaram maior vida em fadiga. / The retained austenite is always present in case carburized steel microstructure in small or high percentages. Since it is a ductile phase, its presence has long been a controversial subject. The influence of retained austenite on short fatigue crack propagation in case carburized SAE 8620 steel was studied in this work. Four-point-bend fatigue tests were carried out at room temperature in specimens without notch using three levels of stress range and a stress ratio of 0.1. Four different amount of retained austenite in the case carburized microstructure were obtained through different cycles of carburizing and heat treating. The retained austenite content was measured by X-ray technique, and the surface short crack growth was monitored by means of acetate replication technique. Crack length versus number of cycles and crack growth rate versus mean crack length were obtained as results. Specimens with higher levels of retained austenite in the carburized case showed longer fatigue life.

Os tratamentos de cementação, têmpera, revenimento e jateamento por granalhas são muito utilizados na produção seriada de peças da indústria automobilística, como engrenagens e eixos. Variações destes processos podem influenciar a vida em fadiga por flexão dos componentes descritos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a influência de variações no tempo de jateamento por granalhas, variações na temperatura de revenimento e de diferentes profundidades de oxidação intergranular, no crescimento de trincas curtas por fadiga na camada cementada do aço DIN 20MnCr5. Para isso foram feitos ensaios de fadiga por flexão em quatro pontos, utilizando corpos de prova de seção retangular e sem entalhe. Para o acompanhamento do crescimento de trincas curtas foi utilizado o método de réplicas de acetato. Foram estudados seis níveis de jateamento, quatro níveis de revenimento e dois níveis de oxidação intergranular. Como resultados principais, foram obtidas curvas de comprimento de trinca por número de ciclos e taxa de crescimento de trinca por tamanho médio da trinca. Amostras jateadas entre trinta minutos e uma hora, revenidas à 160&#176C e com oxidação intergranular por volta de dez mícrons, apresentaram os melhores resultados em relação à vida em fadiga. / Carburizing, quenching, tempering and shot peening treatments are often used in mass production of automotive parts, such as gears and shafts. Changes in these treatments can influence the bending fatigue life of these parts. The purpose of this study was to measure the influence of different shot peening times, different tempering temperature and different internal oxidation depths, on the short fatigue crack growth in case carburized DIN 20MnCr5 steel. Four-point-bend fatigue tests were carried out in rectangular section specimens without notch. The surface short crack growth was monitored by means of acetate replication technique. Six levels of shot peening, four levels of tempering temperatures and two levels of internal oxidation were studied in this work. Crack length versus number of cycles and crack growth rate versus mean crack length were obtained as principal results. Shot peening from 30 minutes to one hour, tempering at 160#176C and a lO~m depth of internal oxidation showed the best results in fatigue life.

Os tratamentos de cementação, têmpera, revenimento e jateamento por granalhas são muito utilizados na produção seriada de peças da indústria automobilística, como engrenagens e eixos. Variações destes processos podem influenciar a vida em fadiga por flexão dos componentes descritos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a influência de variações no tempo de jateamento por granalhas, variações na temperatura de revenimento e de diferentes profundidades de oxidação intergranular, no crescimento de trincas curtas por fadiga na camada cementada do aço DIN 20MnCr5. Para isso foram feitos ensaios de fadiga por flexão em quatro pontos, utilizando corpos de prova de seção retangular e sem entalhe. Para o acompanhamento do crescimento de trincas curtas foi utilizado o método de réplicas de acetato. Foram estudados seis níveis de jateamento, quatro níveis de revenimento e dois níveis de oxidação intergranular. Como resultados principais, foram obtidas curvas de comprimento de trinca por número de ciclos e taxa de crescimento de trinca por tamanho médio da trinca. Amostras jateadas entre trinta minutos e uma hora, revenidas à 160&#176C e com oxidação intergranular por volta de dez mícrons, apresentaram os melhores resultados em relação à vida em fadiga. / Carburizing, quenching, tempering and shot peening treatments are often used in mass production of automotive parts, such as gears and shafts. Changes in these treatments can influence the bending fatigue life of these parts. The purpose of this study was to measure the influence of different shot peening times, different tempering temperature and different internal oxidation depths, on the short fatigue crack growth in case carburized DIN 20MnCr5 steel. Four-point-bend fatigue tests were carried out in rectangular section specimens without notch. The surface short crack growth was monitored by means of acetate replication technique. Six levels of shot peening, four levels of tempering temperatures and two levels of internal oxidation were studied in this work. Crack length versus number of cycles and crack growth rate versus mean crack length were obtained as principal results. Shot peening from 30 minutes to one hour, tempering at 160#176C and a lO~m depth of internal oxidation showed the best results in fatigue life.