One of the most important data elements recorded in the National Automotive Sampling System / Crashworthiness Data System (NASS/CDS) is the vehicle change in velocity, or ?V. ?V is the vector change in velocity experienced by a vehicle during a collision, and is widely used as a measure of collision severity in crash safety research. The ?V information in NASS/CDS is used by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to determine research needs, regulatory priorities, design crash test procedures (e.g., test speed), and to determine countermeasure effectiveness. The WinSMASH crash reconstruction code is used to compute the ?V estimates in the NASS/CDS. However, the reconstruction accuracy of the current WinSMASH version has not previously been examined for side impacts. Given the importance of side impact crash modes and the widespread use of NASS/CDS data, an assessment of the program's reconstruction accuracy is warranted. The goal of this thesis is to quantify the accuracy of WinSMASH ?V estimations for side impact crashes, and to suggest possible means of improving side impact reconstruction accuracy. Crash tests provide a wealth of controlled crash response data against which to evaluate WinSMASH. Knowing the accuracy of WinSMASH in reconstructing crash tests, we can infer WinSMASH accuracy in reconstructing real-world side crashes. In this study, WinSMASH was compared to 70 NHTSA Moving Deformable Barrier (MDB) - to - vehicle side crash tests. Tested vehicles were primarily cars (as opposed to Light Trucks and Vans, or LTVs) from model years 1997 - 2001. For each test, the actual ?V was determined from test instrumentation and this ?V was compared to the WinSMASH-reconstructed ?V of the same test. WinSMASH was found to systemically over-predict struck vehicle resultant ?V by 12% at time of vehicle separation, and by 22% at time of maximum crush. A similar pattern was observed for the MDB ?V; WinSMASH over-predicted resultant MDB ?V by 6.6% at separation, and by 23% at maximum crush. Error in user-estimated reconstruction parameters, namely Principal Direction Of Force (PDOF) error and damage offset, was controlled for in this analysis. Analysis of the results indicates that this over-prediction of ?V is caused by over-estimation of the energy absorbed by struck vehicle damage. In turn, this ultimately stems from the vehicle stiffness parameters used by WinSMASH for this purpose. When WinSMASH was forced to use the correct amount of absorbed energy to reconstruct the crash tests, systemic over-prediction of ?V disappeared. WinSMASH accuracy when reconstructing side crash tests may be improved in two ways. First, providing WinSMASH with side stiffness parameters that are correlated to the correct amount of absorbed energy will correct the systemic over-prediction of absorbed energy when reconstructing NHTSA side crash tests. Second, providing some treatment of restitution in the reconstruction process will correct the under-prediction of ?V due to WinSMASH's assumption of zero restitution. At present, this under-prediction partially masks the over-prediction of ?V caused by over-prediction of absorbed energy. If the over-prediction of absorbed energy is corrected, proper treatment of restitution will correct much of the remaining error observed in WinSMASH reconstructions of NHTSA side crash tests. / Master of Science

The present research work has been carried out to develop a unified knowledge-based hybrid methodology combining regression-based, lumped parameter and finite element analyses that can be implemented in the initial phase of vehicle design resulting in a superior side crash performance. As a first step, a regression-based model (RBM) is developed between the injury parameter Thoracic Trauma Index (TTI) of the rear SID and characteristic side impact dynamic response variables such as rear door velocity (final) and intrusion supplementing an existing RBM for front TTI prediction. In order to derive the rear TTI RBM, existing public domain vehicle crash test data provided by NHTSA has been used. A computer-based tool with a Graphical User Interface (GUI) has been developed for obtaining possible solution sets of response variables satisfying the regression relations for both front and rear TTI. As a next step in the formulation of the present hybrid methodology for vehicle side impact safety design, a new Lumped Parameter Model (LPM) representing NHTSA side impact is developed. The LPM developed consists of body sub-systems like B-pillar, front door, rear door and rocker (i.e. sill) on the struck side of the vehicle, MDB, and “rest of the vehicle” as lumped masses along with representative nonlinear springs between them. It has been envisaged that for the initial conceptual design to progress, the targets of dynamic response variables obtained from RBM should yield a set of spring characteristics broadly defining the required vehicle side structure. However, this is an inverse problem of dynamics which would require an inordinate amount of time to be solved iteratively. Hence a knowledge-based approach is adopted here to link the two sets of variables i.e., the dynamic response parameters (such as average door and B-pillar velocities, door intrusion, etc.) and the stiffness and strength characteristics of the springs present in LPM. In effect, this mapping is accomplished with the help of an artificial neural network (ANN) algorithm (referred to as ANN_RBM_LPM in the current work). To generate the required knowledge database for ANN_RBM_LPM, one thousand cases of LPM chosen with the help of the Latin Hypercube technique are run with varying spring characteristics. The goal of finding the desired design solutions describing vehicle geometry in an efficient manner is accomplished with the help of a second ANN algorithm which links sets of dynamic spring characteristics with sets of sectional properties of doors, B-pillar and rocker (referred as ANN_LPM_FEM in the current work). The implementation of this approach requires creation of a knowledge database containing paired sets of spring characteristics and sectional details just mentioned. The effectiveness of the hybrid methodology comprising both ANN_RBM_LPM and ANN_LPM_FEM is finally illustrated by improving the side impact performance of a Honda Accord finite element model. Thus, the unique knowledge-based hybrid approach developed here can be deployed in real world vehicle safety design for both new and existing vehicles leading to enormous saving of time and costly design iterations.

Occupant thoracic injury incurred during side impact automotive crashes constitutes a significant portion of all fatal and non-fatal automotive injuries. The limited space between the impacting vehicle and occupant can result in significant loads and corresponding injury prior to deceleration of the impacting vehicle. Within the struck vehicle, impact occurs between the occupant and various interior components. Injury is sustained to human structural components such as the thoracic cage or shoulder, and to the internal visceral components such as the heart, lungs, or aorta. Understanding the mechanism behind these injuries is an important step in improving the side impact crash safety of vehicles. This study is focused on the development of a human body numerical model for the purpose of predicting thoracic response and trauma in side impact automotive crash. <br /><br /> The human body model has been created using a previously developed thoracic numerical model, originally used for predicting thoracic trauma under simple impact conditions. The original version of the thorax model incorporated three-dimensional finite element representations of the spine, ribs, heart, lungs, major blood vessels, rib cage surface muscles and upper limbs. The present study began with improvements to the original thorax model and furthered with the development of remaining body components such that the model could be assessed in side impact conditions. <br /><br /> The improvements to the thoracic model included improved geometry and constitutive response of the surface muscles, shoulder and costal cartilage. This detailed thoracic model was complimented with a pelvis, lower limbs, an abdomen and a head to produce the full body model. These components were implemented in a simplified fashion to provide representative response without significant computational costs. The model was developed and evaluated in a stepwise fashion using experimental data from the literature including side abdominal and pelvic pendulum impact tests. <br /><br /> The accuracy of the model response was investigated using experimental testing performed on post mortem human subjects (PMHS) during side and front thoracic pendulum impacts. The model produced good agreement for the side thoracic and side shoulder pendulum impact tests and reasonable correlation during the frontal thoracic pendulum impact test. Complex loading via side sled impact tests was then investigated where the body was loaded unbelted in a NHTSA-type and WSU-type side sled test system. The thorax response was excellent when considering force, compression and injury (viscous criterion) versus time. Compression in the thorax was influenced by the arm position, which when aligned with the coronal plane produced the most aggressive form of compressive loading possible. The simplified components provided good response, falling slightly outside experimental response corridors defined as one standard deviation from the average of the experimental PMHS data. Overall, the predicted model response showed reasonable agreement with the experimental data, while at the same time highlighting areas for future developments. The results from this study suggested that the numerical finite element model developed herein could be used as a powerful tool for improving side impact automotive safety.

Introduction: Approximately 1.25 million people globally are killed in traffic accidents yearly. To achieve the UN Global Goal of a 50% reduction of fatal and serious injuries in 2020 a safer infrastructure, as well as new safety technologies, will be needed. Side crashes represent 20% of all serious and 25 % of fatal injuries. The overall aim of this thesis is to provide guidelines for improved side impact protection. First, by characterizing nearside crashes and injury outcome, including injuries from the farside occupant, for non-senior and senior front seat occupants. Second, to determine whether the WorldSID dummy provides opportunities for improved in-crash occupant protection. And third, by relating in-crash occupant protection to pre-crash countermeasures, to explore a holistic approach for side crashes using the integrated safety chain from safe driving to crash. Methods: NASS/CDS data for both older and modern vehicles was used to provide exposure, incidence, and risk for fatal injury as well as detailed injury distribution and crash characteristics. The WorldSID dummy was compared to Post Mortem Human Subjects (PMHS) in impactor tests at high and low severities to demonstrate the possibilities of this tool. Crash tests were performed to evaluate WorldSID crash test dummy assessments of injuries found in the NASS/CDS data. The integrated safety chain was used to demonstrate how to evaluate occupant protection in side crashes from a larger perspective, involving infrastructure and Automated Emergency Braking. Result: Most side crashes occur at intersections. The head, thorax, and pelvis are the most frequently injured body regions, and seniors have a higher risk for rib fractures compared to non-seniors. The WorldSID dummy response was similar to the PMHS response at the higher impact speed, but not at the lower. In conjunction with improved airbags infrastructural change, and the use of Automated Emergency Braking, can effectively reduce the number of fatalities and injured occupants in side impacts. Conclusion: Future focus for side impact protection should be on intersection crashes, improved occupant protection for senior occupants, and protection for and from the farside occupant, reducing injury risk to the head, thorax, and pelvis. The WorldSID dummy has the ability to reproduce humanlike responses in lateral and oblique impacts. However, at a low crash severity, chest deflection could be underestimated, which must be taken into consideration when evaluating, for example, pre-crash inflated side airbags. Analyzing nearside crashes using the integrated safety chain shows that speed management by means of roundabouts is an efficient countermeasure reducing the number of injurious crashes, as well as reducing variations in crash severity. In combination with an Automated Emergency Braking a large part of side crashes could be avoided or crash severity mitigated. Rather than developing structures and airbags for high-speed crashes, it is important to consider alternative countermeasures. Hence the need for an integrated approach to side impacts.

Although there have been tremendous improvements in crash safety there has been an increasing trend in side impact fatalities, rising from 30% to 37% of total fatalities from 1975 to 2004 (NHTSA, 2004). Between 1979 and 2004, 63% of AIS≥4 injuries in side impact resulted from thoracic trauma (NHTSA, 2004). Lateral impact fatalities, although decreasing in absolute numbers, now comprise a larger percentage of total fatalities. Safety features are typically more effective in frontal collisions compared to side impact due to the reduced distance between the occupant and intruding vehicle in side impact collisions. Therefore, an increased understanding of the mechanisms governing side impact injury is necessary in order to improve occupant safety in side impact auto crash. This study builds on an advanced numerical human body model with focus on a detailed thoracic model, which has been validated using available post mortem human subject (PMHS) test data for pendulum and side sled impact tests (Forbes, 2005). Crash conditions were investigated through use of a modified side sled model used to reproduce the key conditions present in full scale crash tests. The model accounts for several important factors that contribute to occupant response based on the literature. These factors are; the relative velocities between the seat and door, the occupant to door distance, the door shape and compliance. The side sled model was validated by reproducing the crash conditions present in FMVSS 214 and IIHS side impact tests and comparing the thoracic compression, velocity, and Viscous Criterion (VC) response determined by the model to the response of the ES-2 dummy used in the crash tests. Injury was predicted by evaluating VCmax, selected for its ability to predict rate-sensitive soft tissue injury during thoracic compression (Lau & Viano, 1986). The Ford Taurus FMVSS 214 and Nissan Maxima IIHS tests were selected from side impact crash test data found in the NHTSA database because they included factors not present in standard side impact test procedures. These factors were; the presence of door accelerometers used to provide input velocities to the side impact model and the use of a ES-2 (rather than the SID) to facilitate comparison of VC response to the human body model. Also, the two crash test procedures (FMVSS 214 & IIHS) were selected to ensure accurate side impact model response to different impact scenarios. The side impact model was shown to closely reproduce the timing and injury response of the full-scale FMVSS 214 side impact test of a Ford Taurus, as well as the IIHS side impact test of a Nissan Maxima. The side impact model was then used to investigate the effects of door to occupant spacing, door velocity profile, armrest height, seat foam, restraint system, and arm position. It was found that the VCmax was controlled by both the first and second peaks typically found in door velocity profiles, but the effect of each varies depending on the situation. This study found that VCmax was reduced by 73-88% when door intrusion was eliminated compared to the VC response incurred by an intruding door. Also, the presence of a deformable door based on physical geometry and material characteristics rather than a simplified rigid door reduced VCmax by 16% in this study. The study on seat foam determined that significant effects on VC response can be made by modest adjustments in foam properties. Low stiffness seat foam was found to increase VCmax by 41% when compared to the VC response when using high stiffness foam. Arm position has been proven to be a relevant factor in side impact crash. Positioning the arms parallel to the thorax, in the “down” position, caused a 42% increase in VCmax when compared to the VC response determined with the arms positioned at 45 degrees. Finally, although restraint systems have limited influence on side impact crash safety compared to front and rear impacts, this study found that the presence of a pre-tensioning restraint system reduced VCmax by 13% when compared to the VC response of an un-belted occupant. It should be noted that the current study was limited to velocity profiles obtained from a specific FMVSS 214 test and therefore results and observations are restricted to the confines of the input conditions used. However, the side impact model developed is a useful tool for evaluating factors influencing side impact and can be used to determine occupant response in any side impact crash scenario when the appropriate input conditions are provided.

Thoracic injury is the most dominant segment of automotive side impact traumas. A numerical model that can predict such injuries in crash simulation is essential to the process of designing a safer motor vehicle. The focus of this study was to develop a numerical model to predict lung response and injury in side impact car crash scenarios. A biofidelic human body model was further developed. The geometry, material properties and boundary condition of the organs and soft tissues within the thorax were improved with the intent to ensure stress transmission continuity and model accuracy. The thoracic region of the human body model was revalidated against three pendulum and two sled impact scenarios at different velocities. Other body regions such as the shoulder, abdomen, and pelvis were revalidated. The latest model demonstrated improvements in every response category relative to the previous version of the human body model. The development of the lung model involved advancements in the material properties, and boundary conditions. An analytical approach was presented to correct the lung properties to the in-situ condition. Several injury metric predictor candidates of pulmonary contusion were investigated and compared based on the validated pendulum and sled impact scenarios. The results of this study confirmed the importance of stress wave focusing, reflection, and concentration within the lungs. The bulk modulus of the lung had considerable influence on injury metric outcomes. Despite the viscous criterion yielded similar response for different loading conditions, this study demonstrated that the level of contusion volume varied with the size of the impact surface area. In conclusion, the human body model could be used for the analysis of thoracic response in automotive impact scenarios. The overall model is capable of predicting thoracic response and lung contusion. Future development on the heart and aorta can expand the model capacity to investigate all vital organ injury mechanisms.

Occupant thoracic injury incurred during side impact automotive crashes constitutes a significant portion of all fatal and non-fatal automotive injuries. The limited space between the impacting vehicle and occupant can result in significant loads and corresponding injury prior to deceleration of the impacting vehicle. Within the struck vehicle, impact occurs between the occupant and various interior components. Injury is sustained to human structural components such as the thoracic cage or shoulder, and to the internal visceral components such as the heart, lungs, or aorta. Understanding the mechanism behind these injuries is an important step in improving the side impact crash safety of vehicles. This study is focused on the development of a human body numerical model for the purpose of predicting thoracic response and trauma in side impact automotive crash. <br /><br /> The human body model has been created using a previously developed thoracic numerical model, originally used for predicting thoracic trauma under simple impact conditions. The original version of the thorax model incorporated three-dimensional finite element representations of the spine, ribs, heart, lungs, major blood vessels, rib cage surface muscles and upper limbs. The present study began with improvements to the original thorax model and furthered with the development of remaining body components such that the model could be assessed in side impact conditions. <br /><br /> The improvements to the thoracic model included improved geometry and constitutive response of the surface muscles, shoulder and costal cartilage. This detailed thoracic model was complimented with a pelvis, lower limbs, an abdomen and a head to produce the full body model. These components were implemented in a simplified fashion to provide representative response without significant computational costs. The model was developed and evaluated in a stepwise fashion using experimental data from the literature including side abdominal and pelvic pendulum impact tests. <br /><br /> The accuracy of the model response was investigated using experimental testing performed on post mortem human subjects (PMHS) during side and front thoracic pendulum impacts. The model produced good agreement for the side thoracic and side shoulder pendulum impact tests and reasonable correlation during the frontal thoracic pendulum impact test. Complex loading via side sled impact tests was then investigated where the body was loaded unbelted in a NHTSA-type and WSU-type side sled test system. The thorax response was excellent when considering force, compression and injury (viscous criterion) versus time. Compression in the thorax was influenced by the arm position, which when aligned with the coronal plane produced the most aggressive form of compressive loading possible. The simplified components provided good response, falling slightly outside experimental response corridors defined as one standard deviation from the average of the experimental PMHS data. Overall, the predicted model response showed reasonable agreement with the experimental data, while at the same time highlighting areas for future developments. The results from this study suggested that the numerical finite element model developed herein could be used as a powerful tool for improving side impact automotive safety.

Although there have been tremendous improvements in crash safety there has been an increasing trend in side impact fatalities, rising from 30% to 37% of total fatalities from 1975 to 2004 (NHTSA, 2004). Between 1979 and 2004, 63% of AIS≥4 injuries in side impact resulted from thoracic trauma (NHTSA, 2004). Lateral impact fatalities, although decreasing in absolute numbers, now comprise a larger percentage of total fatalities. Safety features are typically more effective in frontal collisions compared to side impact due to the reduced distance between the occupant and intruding vehicle in side impact collisions. Therefore, an increased understanding of the mechanisms governing side impact injury is necessary in order to improve occupant safety in side impact auto crash. This study builds on an advanced numerical human body model with focus on a detailed thoracic model, which has been validated using available post mortem human subject (PMHS) test data for pendulum and side sled impact tests (Forbes, 2005). Crash conditions were investigated through use of a modified side sled model used to reproduce the key conditions present in full scale crash tests. The model accounts for several important factors that contribute to occupant response based on the literature. These factors are; the relative velocities between the seat and door, the occupant to door distance, the door shape and compliance. The side sled model was validated by reproducing the crash conditions present in FMVSS 214 and IIHS side impact tests and comparing the thoracic compression, velocity, and Viscous Criterion (VC) response determined by the model to the response of the ES-2 dummy used in the crash tests. Injury was predicted by evaluating VCmax, selected for its ability to predict rate-sensitive soft tissue injury during thoracic compression (Lau & Viano, 1986). The Ford Taurus FMVSS 214 and Nissan Maxima IIHS tests were selected from side impact crash test data found in the NHTSA database because they included factors not present in standard side impact test procedures. These factors were; the presence of door accelerometers used to provide input velocities to the side impact model and the use of a ES-2 (rather than the SID) to facilitate comparison of VC response to the human body model. Also, the two crash test procedures (FMVSS 214 & IIHS) were selected to ensure accurate side impact model response to different impact scenarios. The side impact model was shown to closely reproduce the timing and injury response of the full-scale FMVSS 214 side impact test of a Ford Taurus, as well as the IIHS side impact test of a Nissan Maxima. The side impact model was then used to investigate the effects of door to occupant spacing, door velocity profile, armrest height, seat foam, restraint system, and arm position. It was found that the VCmax was controlled by both the first and second peaks typically found in door velocity profiles, but the effect of each varies depending on the situation. This study found that VCmax was reduced by 73-88% when door intrusion was eliminated compared to the VC response incurred by an intruding door. Also, the presence of a deformable door based on physical geometry and material characteristics rather than a simplified rigid door reduced VCmax by 16% in this study. The study on seat foam determined that significant effects on VC response can be made by modest adjustments in foam properties. Low stiffness seat foam was found to increase VCmax by 41% when compared to the VC response when using high stiffness foam. Arm position has been proven to be a relevant factor in side impact crash. Positioning the arms parallel to the thorax, in the “down” position, caused a 42% increase in VCmax when compared to the VC response determined with the arms positioned at 45 degrees. Finally, although restraint systems have limited influence on side impact crash safety compared to front and rear impacts, this study found that the presence of a pre-tensioning restraint system reduced VCmax by 13% when compared to the VC response of an un-belted occupant. It should be noted that the current study was limited to velocity profiles obtained from a specific FMVSS 214 test and therefore results and observations are restricted to the confines of the input conditions used. However, the side impact model developed is a useful tool for evaluating factors influencing side impact and can be used to determine occupant response in any side impact crash scenario when the appropriate input conditions are provided.

Thoracic injury is the most dominant segment of automotive side impact traumas. A numerical model that can predict such injuries in crash simulation is essential to the process of designing a safer motor vehicle. The focus of this study was to develop a numerical model to predict lung response and injury in side impact car crash scenarios. A biofidelic human body model was further developed. The geometry, material properties and boundary condition of the organs and soft tissues within the thorax were improved with the intent to ensure stress transmission continuity and model accuracy. The thoracic region of the human body model was revalidated against three pendulum and two sled impact scenarios at different velocities. Other body regions such as the shoulder, abdomen, and pelvis were revalidated. The latest model demonstrated improvements in every response category relative to the previous version of the human body model. The development of the lung model involved advancements in the material properties, and boundary conditions. An analytical approach was presented to correct the lung properties to the in-situ condition. Several injury metric predictor candidates of pulmonary contusion were investigated and compared based on the validated pendulum and sled impact scenarios. The results of this study confirmed the importance of stress wave focusing, reflection, and concentration within the lungs. The bulk modulus of the lung had considerable influence on injury metric outcomes. Despite the viscous criterion yielded similar response for different loading conditions, this study demonstrated that the level of contusion volume varied with the size of the impact surface area. In conclusion, the human body model could be used for the analysis of thoracic response in automotive impact scenarios. The overall model is capable of predicting thoracic response and lung contusion. Future development on the heart and aorta can expand the model capacity to investigate all vital organ injury mechanisms.

Mitigating injury in side impact has been an important topic of research for decades. In the mid 1980’s the American government began a program intended to improve the crashworthiness of vehicles in side impact. This program ultimately led to the introduction of a dynamic side impact test (Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 214), which new vehicles must pass, along with a very similar test aimed at consumer awareness (New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) side impact test). The work presented in this thesis involved the study and simulation of these tests to evaluate occupant response in side impact, with a focus on the thoracic response. In the first portion of the work presented here, an in-depth study of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash test database was performed. In this study the results of the side impact crash tests of 72 vehicles were examined to understand the general trends seen in this type of testing with regards to vehicle velocity, side intrusion, and occupant injury prediction. A series of average velocity profile curves was created from accelerometer data at 18 measurement points on each vehicle crash tested. Additionally the injury criterion measured by the front seat occupant was plotted against several vehicle variables (such as mass and occupant arm to door distance) to study the effect these variable had on the injury predicted by the occupant. No single variable was shown to have a strong correlation to injury, although increasing door intrusion distance, peak lateral velocity, the Head Injury Criterion (HIC), and pelvic acceleration were found to positively correlate to thoracic injury. In addition, increasing vehicle model year, vehicle mass, and arm to door (AD) distance showed negative correlations with thoracic injury. Following the survey of the NHTSA database, a finite element model of the NHTSA side impact test was developed. This model included a full scale Ford Taurus model, a NHTSA barrier model and three side impact anthropometric test device (ATD) occupant models, each representing a different 50th percentile male dummy. Validation of this model was carried out by comparing the simulated vehicle component velocity results to the corridors developed in the NHSTA crash test database study as well as comparing these velocities, the vehicle deformation profile, and the occupant velocity, acceleration and rib deflection to several Ford Taurus crash tests from a similar vintage to the finite element model. As this model was intended as a ‘baseline’ case to study side impact and occupant kinematics in side impact, side airbags were not included in this model. A lack of experimental data and a lack of consensuses within the automotive crash community on the proper method of modeling these devices and their effectiveness in real world impacts also led to their exclusion. Following model validation, a parametric study was carried out to assess the importance of the initial position of the occupant on the vehicle door velocity profile and the predicted occupant injury response. Additionally the effect of the door trim material properties, arm rest properties and the effect of seat belt use were studied. It was found that the lateral position of the occupant had an effect on the door velocity profile, while the vertical and longitudinal position did not. The use of seatbelts was shown to have no significant effect in these simulations, due to minimal interaction between the restraint system and occupant during side impact. Furthermore, there was a general decreasing trend in the injury predicted as the initial position of the occupant was moved further inboard, down and forward in the vehicle. Stiffer interior trim was found to improve the injury prediction of the occupant, while changing the material of the foam door inserts had no effect. It was found that in general the occupant remained in position, due to the inertia of the occupant, while the seat began moving towards the centerline of the vehicle. Future considerations could include more advanced restraint systems to couple the occupant more effectively to the seat, or to develop side interior trim that engages the occupant earlier to reduce the relative velocity between the occupant and intruding door. Overall, the model correlated well with experimental data and provided insight into several areas which could lead to improved occupant protection in side impact. Future work should include integrating side airbags into the model, widening the focus of the areas of injury to include other body regions and integrating more detailed human body models.