M.A. / The aim of this dissertation is to establish the relevance, if not, of the debate surrounding standard and non-standard language with specific reference to the current South African situation. Some background to the debate is provided by means of a concise study of literature where opposing perspectives of several South African and foreign linguists are analysed. The debate is consequently viewed from an educational perspective. Attention is also paid to extra-linguistic factors currently influencing the unique linguistic situation in South Africa; South Africa's membership of Africa as well as its twenty-first century time-spirit comes under scrutiny. An empirical study tries to establish attitudes of a group tertiary college students towards varieties of English, i.e. Standard English, Black English Vernacular and Black South African English. Certain deductions are made from all aquired information whereupon some recommendations follow.

This thesis explores how language, identity and ethnicity are intertwined in the post-apartheid South African state by focusing on one particular language group, i.e. the isiZulu-speaking community of the Umlazi township. Drawing from general theoretical foundations in the field and sociohistorical considerations, the study explores empirically the significance and saliency of isiZulu in the life experience and identity negotiations of Umlazi residents. By juxtaposing the role and functions ofisiZulu with the economically hegemonic role of the English language, the social and cultural vitality of isiZulu is exposed. Using a triangulated approach, which combines quantitative and qualitative empirical methods, the study discusses subjective individual meanings and the involved emic categories, which guide the participants' understanding of who they are in relation to languages in the post-apartheid state. The study discusses how a sociolinguistic dichotomy between culturally and socially grounded identification processes and pragmatic and economically motivated ones manifests itself. The study reveals, inter alia, how language, i.e. isiZulu, is not only regarded as a cultural resource, but as a tool of identification that transcends the boundaries of race, class, religion and politics in a modern day township community. Furthermore, isiZuluspeakers' identities and ethnicities are first and foremost language-embedded, hence they are linguistically salient. It is argued that languages, i.e. isiZulu and English, are powerful devices that create boundaries, which consequently also divide the community. Finally, the researcher explores the implications of this study in the wider context of South Africa's sociolinguistic reality, and suggests that the promotion and development ofisiZulu is indeed a worthwhile undertaking in the democratic state. / Lolucwaningo olusekelwe ngezizathu ezitholakele ngendlela enzulu lubhekene nokuthola ukuthi ulwimu, ubunjalo bomuntu, kanye nobuzwe bakhe, kuvela kanjani njengengxenye yezinto eziwumphumela wobunjalo bezwe lase Mzansi Afrika emva kobandlululo. Lukwenza lokhu ngokuthi lugxile ohlobeni oluthile Iwabantu emphakathini okhuluma isiZulu wase Lokishini laseMlazi. Ngokucaphuna ezisekelweni zezinzululwazi ezithile emkhakheni wezifundo zocwaningo ngemphakathi nemilando yazo, lolucwaningo luhlola indlela oluballuleke ngayo ulwimi IwesiZulu ezimpilweni zabantu baseLokishini laseMlazi, nasezehlakalweni ezimpilweni zabo emizameni yokwakheka kobunjalo babo. Uma sibheka indawo nemisebenzi edlalwa ulimi IwesiZulu kolunye uhlangothi, kanye namandla olwimi IweSingisi kwezomnotho ngakolunye uhlangothi, kuyabonakala ukuthi amandla nokubaluleka kolwimi IwesiZulu emasikweni emiPhakathini alusebenzisayo kubekeka esimweni esingagwinyisi mathe impela. Ngokusebenzisa uhlobo locwaningo olubheka elukucwaningayo ngezingxenyeni ezintathu, bese luxuba nendlela yokucwaninga esebenzisa amanani abantu nezimpendulo eziphuma kubo qobo, lolucwaningo luhlaziya izindlela abantu abasebenzisa imibono yabo ekwakhekeni kobunjalo babo obuxubene nezinga lomnotho abakulo ngalesosikhathi, konke okugcina sekuholele abantu abayingxenye y a lolucwaningo bazibone ngendlela ethile engumphumela wokuthi baphuma ezweni ekade linobandluluo iminyaka eminingi. Lolucwaningo luhlola ukuthi ukungqubuzana phakathi kolwimi losiko olwakha ubunjalo babantu olukhulunywa emphakathi, kolunye uhlangothi, nezinto eziphathekayo ezihlangene nezomnotho, ngakolunye uhlangothi, kuziveza kanjani. Lolucwaningo luyaveza, phakathi kwezinye izinto, ukuthi ulwimi, lapha sikhuluma ngesiZulu, alubhekwa kuphela njengento esebenzela isiko, kodwa njengethuluzi elisebenza ekwakhekeni kobunjalo bomuntu okudlulela ngale kwemingcele yobuhlanga, yezinga lomnotho umuntu nomuntu akulo, inkolo umuntu akuyo, kanye nezepolitiki emphakathini wasemalokishini wanamuhla. Okudlulele, ubunjalo balabo abakhuluma ulwimi IwesiZulu nobuzwe babo ahlukene nakancane nolwimi Iwabo. Indlela ulwimi Iwabo olusebenza ngayo ichaza bona ukuthi bangobani. Lolucwaningo luthola nokuthi kukhona abagcizelelayo ukuthi izilimi isiZulu neSingisi ayizindlela ezinamandla ezakha imingcele egcina isihlukanise umphakathi waselokishini laseMlazi. Okokugcina, umcwaningi kulolucwaningo uhlola imiphumela yalokhu emiphakathini nasezilimini eniNingizimu Afrika iyonkana, bese ebeka imibono ethi ukuthuthukiswa nokuvuselelwa kolwimi IwesiZulu empeleni izinto ezidingekayo nezibalulekile ezweni lentando yeningi. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.

D.Phil. (African Languages) / This study attempts to fill a gap in the available research on language use in Black urban speech communities. Previous studies conducted in these communities, concentrated on specific language varieties. However, no attempt at describing the entire language situation in such a community had hitherto been made. A macro-level sociolinguistic description which would serve as an orientation for various detailed studies on the language varieties occurring in these communities, was therefore needed. The aim of the present study was to provide such a description. In order to achieve this, a sound theoretical framework had to be established. Phenomena such as language 'Contact, language variation and language use had to be researched and defined in order to apply to the particular situation under investigation. In .this sense, this study has succeeded in making a contribution to the theoretical debate regarding various sociolinguistic concepts, in that it has shown how these concepts apply to the South African situation. The study also investigated qualitative research methodology. The background to and implications of this methodology were discussed and analysed. A particular type of qualitative research, namely, interactive qualitative research was explored. Within this framework, a unique approach to two basic data collection techniques, namely, individual and focus group interviewing, was proposed. These techniques were used to gather the primary data for this study, and were discussed in detail. The primary data was gathered from residents of the township known as Tembisa. The secondary data was taken from studies done on individual language varieties in other Black urban speech communities. The primary data was analysed and a comprehensive qualitative description of the entire language situation in the speech community of Tembisa was given. The findings of the Tembisa study were compared with the secondary data, resulting in the identification of a number of distinct language varieties which occur in the township situations that were studied. These are: a number of Standard languages, Fanakalo (although seldom used), a Black urban vernacular, Afrikaans-based Tsotsitaal, Zulu-based Tsotsitaal, Soweto Zulu Slang, Soweto Iscamtho, Tembisa Iscamtho, English and Afrikaans. Sociolinguistic profiles of each of these language varieties were drawn up. These profiles provided clarity on the linguistic diversity in the Black urban speech communities studied and enabled the rendering of a graphic representation of the language situation in Tembisa. The above-mentioned varieties were typologised. Based on language type and language function, the study proposed a model which may be used as a framework for describing the language situation in multilingual Black urban speech communities. The study concludes with recommendations with regard to the need for linguistic analyses of the language varieties used in Black urban speech communities. The implications of the widespread use of these varieties, particularly for education, also deserve further investigation as a matter of urgency...

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The remarkable story of Tsotsi as a gangster in the movie Tsotsi offers several examples of language variation and of language choice as a marker of identity. The situations and contexts portrayed in the movie define, to some extent, the choices of language or variety speakers make. Context-specific factors playing a determining role include gender, purpose, geographical location, social class, and age. Tsotsi, the main character, is a gangster living in Sophiatown, a township outside Johannesburg. The term “tsotsi” generally refers to one who is well-dressed and stylish, but with an undercurrent of dangerous adventure; the character portrayed by Tsotsi in the movie is a self-made man, successful in terms of township gangster culture. The movie traces six days in the life of this young hoodlum, who rediscovers his humanity through various challenges and personal relationships in his surroundings; he finds dignity and the capacity to love through having to take care of a baby accidentally kidnapped during a car hijacking episode, through his friendship with the young woman he forces to take care of the baby, and ultimately through confronting haunting memories of his past. Tsotsi’s mother tongue is Sotho, but Flaaitaal is his language of choice in certain contexts, marking his identity as a tsotsi. This study considers the language variation typical of South Africa, as exemplified by the language choices made by the various characters in the movie. An analysis is offered of the language choices which play a role in defining the identities of the characters in various contexts, such as the use of Flaaitaal by the gangsters among themselves, who switch to Sotho when the more socially acceptable aspects of their identities should come to the fore, and the use of Sotho by the white police captain while interviewing the Sotho parents of the kidnapped baby. It is this function of language choice as a marker of identity that is the focus of the present work. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die merkwaardige storie van Tsotsi as ‘n bendelid in die rolprent Tsotsi bied geleentheid vir die analise van talle voorbeelde van taalvariasie en van taalkeuse as ‘n merker van identiteit. Die situasies en kontekste wat in die rolprent weergegee word definieer tot ‘n mate die sprekers se keuse van taal of variëteit. Faktore spesifiek tot die konteks wat hierin ‘n rol speel sluit in geslag, funksie, geografiese ligging, sosiale klas, en ouderdom. Die hoofkarakter Tsotsi is ‘n bendelid wat in Sophiatown buite Jonhannesburg bly. Die term “tsotsi” verwys oor die algemeen na iemand wat stylvol voorkom, maar met ‘n agtergrond van gevaarlike avontuur; die karakter wat deur Tsotsi gespeel word is ‘n self-gemaakte man, suksesvol in terme van die bende-kultuur van areas soos Sophiatown. Die rolprent fokus op ses dae van hierdie jong bendelid se lewe, waar hy sy menslikheid herontdek deur verskeie uitdagings en persoonlike verhoudings; hy ontdek menswaardigheid en die vermoë om lief te hê deurdat hy vir ‘n baba moet sorg wat per ongeluk ontvoer word tydens ‘n motorkaping, deur sy vriendskap met die vrou wat hy forseer om die baba te versorg, en uiteindelik deurdat hy sy herinneringe aan sy verlede moet konfronteer. Tsotsi se moedertaal is Sotho, maar Flaaitaal is die taal wat hy in sekere kontekste kies om sy identiteit as tsotsi te merk. Hierdie studie fokus op die taalvariasie wat tipies is van Suid-Afrika soos dit deur die taalkeuses van verskeie karakters in die rolprent voorgestel word. ‘n Analise word aangebied van taalkeuses wat ‘n rol speel in die definiëring van die identiteite van die karakters in verskeie kontekste, soos die gebruik van Flaaitaal onder die bendelede self, wat na Sotho oorslaan in situasies waar die meer sosiaal-aanvaarbare aspekte van hul identiteit uitegebeeld behoort te word, en die gebruik van Sotho deur die blanke polisiekaptein as hy die Sotho ouers van die ontvoerde baba aanspreek. Dit is hierdie funskie van taalkeuse as ‘n merker van identiteit wat die fokus vorm van hierdie studie.

This thesis is a study of patterns of language attitudes and use among Xhosa home language speakers at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa. Speakers of Xhosa, according to Statistics South Africa 2000, form the second largest speech community in South Africa (17.9% of the total population), second only to speakers of Zulu (22.9% of the total population). The University of the Western Cape, which is situated just outside Cape Town, was originally intended to serve only the Coloured (mixed-race) population of South Africa. Coloureds form the majority group in the population of the Western Cape, one of the nine provinces of South Africa. In 1982, the university took the bold step of defying the apartheid regime, by opening its doors to students of all races. Students from all over South Africa now attend the university, but Xhosa students, drawn mainly from the provinces of the Eastern and Western Cape, form the largest language group or speech community on the campus. The thesis presents a study of the patterns of language attitudes and use with which Xhosa students enter the university, as well as patterns of change in language attitudes and use revealed by a longitudinal study of a smaller group of Xhosa students.

This thesis has a dual focus viz. language attitudes and code-switching behaviour of facilitators and learners in the Key Learning Area of Language, Literacy and Communication (LLC), in the senior phase (more specifically Grades 8 and 9), Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) classroom. The schools that form the basis of this study are an Afrikaans medium school (comprising predominantly Afrikaans native language (NL) speakers); an English medium school (comprising both English NL and Zulu NL speakers); and a school that claims to be an English medium school, but where, in reality, the language of learning and teaching (for its predominantly Zulu NL speakers) is English-Zulu CS. These schools were specifically selected because the linguistic ethos of each is distinctly different from each other and because each may be distinguished as exNED1, exHOD2 and exDET3 schools as a result of the separatist principles of the government prior to 1994. This study, firstly, investigates the attitudes of school stake-holders viz. educators, subject advisors, parent component of the school governing body (SGB) and Grade 8 and 9 learners, toward the three principal languages i.e. English, Afrikaans and isiZulu, offered for study at Kwazulu Natal (KZN) schools, more specifically in Port Shepstone, the lower south coast of KZN. It also investigates the attitudes of the school stake-holders toward code-switching (CS). The methods I employed in collecting the data for determining attitudes toward the three languages and CS between these languages are questionnaires and interviews. An analysis of the data reveals that, for the participants of this research: (i) English is the most prestigious and coveted language and is the preferred medium of instruction for English NL and Zulu NL speakers; (ii) Afrikaans and Zulu are both perceived as "low-languages" but are greatly valued by their respective indigenous speakers mostly because they endow them with a sense of identity; and (iii) Zulu is the preferred additional language by English NL speakers. In addition, an analysis of the data reveals that the participants have mixed attitudes toward CS: (i) a few see code-switching as a degenerative form of linguistic behaviour that hinders learning; (ii) a few perceive it positively with the view that it fulfills a variety of functions in both informal and formal domains; and (iii) most attach a neutral value to it, in that, depending on the 'wheres' and 'whys' and how often it is used, code-switching can either promote or hinder learning. This study shows that most of the participants of this study hold neutral views toward CS thus indicating a shift in attitudes toward this form of linguistic behaviour i.e. from mostly negative to neutral views. Secondly, in investigating whether CS is used in the LLC English (LLCE) [Ll], LLCE [L2], and LLC Afrikaans (LLCA) [L2] classrooms by means of lesson recordings, the data reveals that: (i) the facilitator of the LLCE [Ll] classroom of the English medium school does not make use of CS in her classroom but that the Zulu speaking learners use CS during group-work; (ii) the facilitator and learners of LLCE [L2] of the Afrikaans medium school do not make use of CS because it is proscribed at the school; (iii) the Zulu NL facilitator and learners of LLCE [L2] make use of English-Zulu CS; and (iv) the English NL speaking facilitators and learners of LLCA [L2] use Afrikaans-English CS, and the Zulu NL speaking facilitators and learners of LLCA [L2] use Afrikaans-English-Zulu CS as the medium of teaching and learning. This study also examines the forms and functions of English-Zulu CS, Afrikaans-English CS and Afrikaans-English-Zulu CS by bilingual and multilingual teachers and learners. An analysis of data obtained from lesson recordings reveals that the facilitators and learners engage in various forms of CS behaviour in their teaching and discussing, respectively. These forms are: intersentential switching, intrasentential switching, lexical switching and tag switching. Through an analysis of data obtained from the lesson recordings, this research also reveals that the use of CS fulfills social, psychological and pedagogical functions. Code-switching therefore claims a legitimate place as a teaching and learning agent in the LLC, senior phase, OBE classroom. As such, I argue that CS is not demonstrative of language incompetence, nor is it necessarily an interlanguage but a linguistic code that may be employed as a powerful teaching and learning resource by those who have the linguistic repertoire to do so. Finally, I explore the implications of this research for principals, teachers and SGB members, L2 teachers and teaching, and teaching methodology. I suggest that there is a need for the education role-players to engage in consciousness raising as the language policy documents clearly accord CS official status, particularly in the OBE curriculum, and more importantly, because CS is a reality in the classroom. In addition, I suggest that by employing CS in the teaching of languages, learning is enhanced, language communicative competence is promoted, and the achievement of the specific outcomes outlined for LLC by OBE curriculum are facilitated. Furthermore, in exploring the implications for methodology, I argue that CS can be used consciously, as a technique for teaching and learning. Lastly, I suggest that if the Department of Education is committed to promoting multilingualism among its learners, then it should make the necessary financial resources available to schools. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

This dissertation explores the sociolinguistic dynamics and challenges facing African learners in some multiracial schools in KwaZulu-Natal in terms of their linguistic and cultural identities. It seeks to investigate the impact of schooling in multiracial schools on the identities of young Zulu speakers living in Sundumbili Township in Northern KwaZulu-Natal. Three formerly HOD schools in Stanger were identified as research sites, and 100 Grade 11 learners selected as respondents. Data was collected by a multi-method approach, through a written questionnaire, and through interviews with a sub-group of the respondents. Data analysis involved both qualitative and quantitative processes. The findings indicate that the learners investigated have responded to the challenges posed by their schooling in a multiracial environment by developing into bilingual speakers who are aware of the need to select their language according to the communicative needs of their context. They seem well able to shift from school to the township and vice versa. However it is clear that some are no longer fully proficient in isiZulu. At the same time, these learners still identify themselves as amaZulu, primarily on the basis of participating in Zulu cultural activities. The role of language in constituting Zulu identity appears to be receding: many respondents feel that speaking isiZulu is no longer essential to being amaZulu. These attitudes raise some concerns about the long-term maintenance of isiZulu. The thesis concludes with some recommendations aimed at enhancing the continued use of isiZulu. The Department of Education must ensure that all schools promote an additive form of bilingualism which will enable a child to develop in his/her mother tongue while getting exposure to an additional language. Furthermore economic value must be given to these African languages to enable learners to find meaning in studying and using them. Multiracial schools should celebrate diversity in both linguistic and cultural terms, and parents should come to accept the important roles that they need to play in this regard. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

This thesis is a study of patterns of language attitudes and use among Xhosa home language speakers at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa. Speakers of Xhosa, according to Statistics South Africa 2000, form the second largest speech community in South Africa (17.9% of the total population), second only to speakers of Zulu (22.9% of the total population). The University of the Western Cape, which is situated just outside Cape Town, was originally intended to serve only the Coloured (mixed-race) population of South Africa. Coloureds form the majority group in the population of the Western Cape, one of the nine provinces of South Africa. In 1982, the university took the bold step of defying the apartheid regime, by opening its doors to students of all races. Students from all over South Africa now attend the university, but Xhosa students, drawn mainly from the provinces of the Eastern and Western Cape, form the largest language group or speech community on the campus. The thesis presents a study of the patterns of language attitudes and use with which Xhosa students enter the university, as well as patterns of change in language attitudes and use revealed by a longitudinal study of a smaller group of Xhosa students.

This study set out to analyse the concept of the ʾcoloured communityʾ and to describe the linguistic phenomena associated with it. It was found that the community was characterized by division and an overt rejection of 'coloured' identity. A satisfactory definition of the community could only be arrived at by exploring social psychological and anthropological concepts, particularly that of the social network, and a covert identification was postulated. This in turn was used to explain the linguistic phenomena which were found to be associated with the community. The latter included a vernacular dialect consisting of non-standard Afrikaans blended with English, as well as a stratification of particular items in the English spoken by community members . This stratification was analysed in terms of the social distribution of the items, enabling comparisons to be made with the English spoken by ʾwhitesʾ. A fieldwork study was embarked on with the intention of discovering the nature of the perceptions of, and attitudes towards, the idiolects of certain speakers. These idiolects were considered to be typical and representative of the forms of English normally encountered in the Cape Peninsula, and were described in terms of the co-occurrences of linguistic items which they contained. Tape recordings of the speech of this group of speakers were presented in a series of controlled experiments to subjects from various class and community backgrounds who were required to respond by completing questionnaires. It was found that those lects which contained items and co-occurrences of items peculiar to 'coloured' speakers were associated with lower status than those containing items and co-occurrences of items peculiar to 'white' speakers. Attitudes towards speakers were found to be more complex and depended upon the styles and paralanguage behaviours of the speakers, as well as accent, and also the psychological dispositions of the subjects who participated

Magister Artium - MA / The study investigated the practice of codeswitching within the Cape Flats speech community of Cape Town. Members of this speech community have always been exposed to both English and Afrikaans in formal as well as informal contexts. Due to constant exposure to both languages, as well as historical and political experiences, members of the speech community have come to utilize both languages within a single conversation and even within a single utterance. Codeswitching is an integral part of the community's speech behaviour. The main purpose of this research was to uncover and analyze the motivations behind codeswitching in the bilingual communities of Cape Town, while also providing a strong argument that codeswitching patterns evident in their speech do not always correspond completely with linguistic constraints that are regarded as 'universal'. / South Africa