Previous experimental studies of soil-reinforcement interaction have generally concentrated on the effect of reinforcement working in axial tension; this study looks at reinforcement working in bending and shear. The experimental programme was carried out in a large scale direct shear apparatus able to contain a cubic soil sample of side 1m. A previous study showed that the apparatus required improvements to its boundaries. Modifications to the apparatus resulted in a significant improvement in the performance of the apparatus. The data being comparable with those from direct shearboxes with similar symmetrical boundary conditions. The effect of reinforcement in shear and bending was studied by varying the reinforcement cross section reinforcement orientation, method of installation, and the relative soil- reinforcement stiffness and strength. All tests were carried out on a well graded and uniform quartz sand. The reinforcement was typically mild steel circular bar. Data from tests on instrumented reinforcement bars allowed the distribution of lateral loading to be observed. This led to the development of a mathematical model for predicting the shear force available from reinforcement in soil. A comparison of this model with the test data and from data in the literature revealed it to provide an accurate upper estimate of reinforcement shear force are much greater than those required for axial force. The conclusions in this dissertation address much of the ambiguity over the use of soil reinforcement in shear and bending for soil nailing and dowelling design.

The research described in this dissertation follows on from the study made by Jewell (1980)into the effects of tensile reinforcement on the mechanical behaviour of sand. For this study Jewell used the direct shear test with reinforcement placed about the central plane as shown in fig. 1.1. The direct shear test was chosen for the following reasons. (1) The reinforcement variables could be better controlled and examined in a unit cell test than in modular field studies of soil reinforcement systems. (2) The pattern of deformation is similar to that experienced by soil in which a rupture band develops, with the principal axes of stress, strain and strain increment free to rotate as is the case in model and field structures. (3) The overall shear strength of the sample is measured directly at the boundaries of the apparatus. The direct shear tests were monitored by boundary measurements and internal measurements using a radiographic technique. The findings are outlined below with reference made to relevant observations by other researchers. 1) The optimum orientation for a relatively flexible steel grid was found to be approximately along the direction of principal tensile strains in the unreinforced sand, see fig.1.2. This indicated that the reinforcement functioned by limiting tensile strains in the sand. McGown et al. (1978) obtained a similar result for plane strain cell tests on sand containing a single layer of flexible reinforcement. However in both studies the reinforcement was observed to waken the sand. Jewell recognized weakening to occur when the steel grid was placed along the direction of principal compressive strains in the unreinforced sand. This was attributed to a reduction in vertical effective stress. McGown et al. observed weakening of the sand when the reinforcement orientation approached the rupture band which developed in the sand alone. This was recognized to be the direction of zero-extension in the unreinforced sand. The weakening was linked to a lower bond between soil and reinforcement than soil alone. 2) Internal strains determined by Jewell showed the tensile reinforcement modified strains in the sand over a well defined zone, see fig.1.3. This resulted in a significant rotation of principal axes of strain increment, with the bond of major strains which developed across the centre of the box in the unreinforced sand being prohibited from forming. This agreed with boundary measurements, indicating the reinforcement functioned by limiting tensile strains in the sand. Consequently a less favourable mode of failure took place. The limit of rotation of principal axes of strain increment was understood to be the alignment of a direction of zero-extension in the sand with the reinforcement. These findings agree with the ideas expressed by Basset and Last (1978) on the mode of action of tensile reinforcement, which in particular was related to the effect of tensile reinforcement on the strain field in a reinforced earth wall as shown in fig.1.4. 3) For efficient use of tensile reinforcement it was demonstrated that the bond with sand should be as high as possible. This could be achieved by roughening the surface. Alternatively, the bond was improved by introducing openings or apertures in the reinforcement, changing the shape to a grid. It appeared that the bond for a suitably proportioned grid could be as high as for a fully roughened surface. 4) The longitudinal stiffness of tensile reinforcement was observed to affect the magnitude and rate of increase in strength in the direct shear tests. The rupture strain of tensile reinforcement relative to maximum tensile strains of the soil, under the same operational stress conditions, have also been observed to influence the reinforcing effect in terms of its limiting behaviour, i.e. whether brittle or ductile (McGown, et al. 1978). With regards to the performance of reinforced earth walls, Al-Hussanini and Perry (1976) observed that steel reinforced strips produced a stiffer and stronger structure than a more extensible fabric reinforcement, even though surface roughness was less. The importance of reinforcement tensile stiffness is recognized in limit equilibrium designs for tensile reinforced soil structures by limiting the available reinforcement force to the tensile strains that can develop in the soil (e.g. Jewell 1985). For highly structured non-woven and composite geotextiles, McGown et al. (1982) demonstrated that the stress-strain behaviour can be significantly affected by soil confinement. Testing wider strips in isolation was not found to replicate the effects of soil confinement. Another factor which needs to be considered when assessing the tensile property of a polymer reinforcement is creep. McGown et al. (1984) illustrated an appropriate method of interpreting creep data using isochronous curves, which enable long term laboratory test data to be extrapolated to the design life of the soil structure. 5) The strain and hence stress fields in the reinforced direct shear tests have been shown to be complex and non-uniform. However Jewell successfully modelled the variation of reinforcing effect for tensile reinforcement at different orientations by using a simple limit equilibrium analysis, see fig.1.5. The effect of the tensile reinforcement force was represented as: - an increase in the normal effective stress acting on the central plane of the box due to the normal component of the force and - a reduction in the applied shear stress due to the parallel component of the force to the central plane. Subsequently this analysis has been applied to limit equilibrium design methods for reinforcing soil retaining walls and embankments, Jewell et al. 1984, and Jewell 1982 respectively. 6) A reduction in the reinforcing effect for individual reinforcement due to the presence of other reinforcement was observed in the shear box. This loss of efficiency of individual reinforcement was termed interference. Interference between tensile reinforcement has also been studied by Guilloux et al. (1979) for the pull-out resistance from soil. However interference between reinforcement has yet to be introduced into a limit equilibrium design method.

The mechanisms by which a geogrid acts to reinforce a granular layer over a soft clay were investigated with reference to trafficking of unpaved roads. The research involved a programme of physical testing at both model and full scale. Model tests were carried out for monotonic and cyclic loading of a dual footing on to a layer of granular material that was compacted over a consolidated kaolin sample. The tests were made in conditions of plane strain at a quarter scale, and included a scaled geogrid at the base of the granular layer. Measurements of footing load, displacements and photographic observations through a perspex front face to the test box were used to identify the reinforcing actions of the geogrid. A virtual work procedure was adopted in analysis of the results for both unreinforced and reinforced layers. The procedure accounts for lateral restraint of the subgrade and a membrane action in the reinforced tests, and allows a comparison of the cyclic test results with an equivalent monotonic bearing capacity. Load tests were also made on footing plates at full scale, involving a similar arrangement of compacted granular layers over prepared London clay and including a high strength polymer geogrid. Examination of the test results allowed a qualitative assessment of the model performance and the reinforcing mechanisms attributed to the geogrid.

The stress-strain behaviour of unsaturated soils containing discrete bubbles of gas has been studied in a programme of experimental and theoretical research. The research is of particular relevance to the offshore environment, where bubbles of methane, nitrogen and carbon dioxide are formed within the seabed by the decomposition of organic matter. The presence of these gas bubbles can have a major influence on the engineering properties of the soil. As gas bubbles in marine sediments are typically much larger than the normal void spaces, the bubbles cannot be considered as simply changing the compressibility of the pore fluid. Chapters 2 to 4 describe a series of undrained triaxial tests on reconstituted samples of clayey silt from an estuarine site. Bubbles of methane were formed within the soil by using a chemical technique. The test results provide evidence of the effect of gas bubbles on the undrained shear strength, together with useful information on the stress-strain behaviour prior to failure, the generation of pore pressures during shearing, the elastic moduli and the isotropic consolidation behaviour. A theoretical model for soils containing large gas bubbles is developed in Chapter 5. The model consists of spherical bubble cavities surrounded by a matrix of saturated soil. In the following three chapters various aspects of the soil behaviour are examined by analysing the theoretical model. Chapter 6 covers the elastic moduli, Chapter 7 the consolidation behaviour and Chapter 8 the undrained shear strength. In Chapter 9 the predictions of the theoretical model are compared with the experimental results. The agreement between theory and experiment is excellent, suggesting that the theoretical approach developed and analysed in Chapters 5 to 8 is a reasonable model for the behaviour of soils containing large gas bubbles.

This thesis presents the results of an investigation into soil-reinforcement interaction by means of direct shear and pull-out tests. Scale and other factors affecting test results were studied; for this purpose an apparatus able to contain a 1 cu.m sample of sand was designed by the author in order to perform large scale tests. Plastic and metal sheet and grid reinforcements were used in conjunction with Leighton Buzzard sand. Direct Shear tests on unreinforced sand samples showed that soil strength parameters were not affected by the test scale, although the post peak behaviour and the shear band thickness at the centre of the sample were significantly affected by the scale of the test. The presence of a reinforcement layer inclined to the central plane of the box had a marked effect on the strength and behaviour of the sample. The reinforcement increased the vertical stress and inhibited the shear strain development in the central region of the sample. The behaviour of the reinforced sample was found to depend on the type and form of the reinforcement as well as its mechanical properties. Pull-out test results can be severely affected by boundary conditions, in particular by the friction on the front wall of the box. The results obtained in the series of tests showed that interference between grid bearing members is the main factor conditioning the pull-out resistance of a grid reinforcement. The intensity of such interference was quantified on the basis of results obtained in tests using single isolated bearing members and grids with different geometric characteristics. An expression for the bond coefficient between soil and grid, taking into account the degree of interference, was suggested. It was also observed that the maximum bearing pressure exhibited by a bearing member depends on the ratio of the member diameter to the mean particle size.

Usualmente as propriedades do solo não são adequadas às características e às necessidades de projeto. É apresentada, como alternativa, a técnica de reforço com inclusão de elementos fibrosos à matriz de solo. Nesse sentido, a análise do comportamento mecânico de um solo micro-reforçado com fibras de distintos índices aspecto é objetivada. Para tanto, uma célula de compressão triaxial com medidas internas de deformações é construída, instrumentada e calibrada para realização de ensaios, sob trajetórias de tensões convencionais, em amostras com 100mm de diâmetro e 200mm de altura. O solo, uma areia fina, de granulometria uniforme, é reforçado com fibras de polipropileno com diferentes comprimentos, 12, 24, 36 e 50mm, e diferentes diâmetros, 0,023 e 0,100mm, equivalentes a índices aspecto entre 120 e 2174. As amostras apresentam densidade relativa de 50%, teor de umidade de 10% e adição de 0,5% de fibras em relação à massa de solo seco. Os resultados demonstram a eficácia da utilização do reforço no ganho de resistência das amostras em relação ao material nãoreforçado. Dessa forma, os parâmetros de resistência da matriz reforçada apresentam notável aumento. Os valores de ângulo de atrito interno das misturas não são influenciados pelo índice aspecto das fibras. Em contrapartida, os valores de intercepto coesivo dos compósitos são fortemente influenciados pelo índice aspecto dos reforços. Ainda, é verificado um valor de índice aspecto a partir do qual o compósito passa a apresentar comportamento de enrijecimento mais pronunciado, em torno de 300 neste estudo. É verificado, também, que a rigidez da areia não é alterada pela inclusão dos micro-reforços. Semelhantemente, o comportamento dilatante da areia não é sensivelmente afetado pela adição de fibras. Todavia, a relação de tensões final das misturas é reduzida com o aumento da tensão confinante e ampliada com o aumento do índice aspecto das fibras. Por fim, a medida dos comprimentos das fibras antes e após a realização dos ensaios mostra que os reforços não rompem por tração. A interação entre a matriz de solo e as fibras se dá através do deslizamento e do alongamento das fibras. / The study of the mechanical behavior of a soil micro-reinforced with distinct aspect ratios fibers is the purpose of this investigation. Thus, a triaxial compression cell is built and drained standard triaxial tests on 100mm diameter and 200mm high specimens are carried out. The soil, a uniform fine sand, is reinforced with polypropylene fibers with different lengths, 12, 24, 36 and 50mm, different diameters, 0.023 and 0.100mm, and consequently with a large spectrum of aspect ratios, up to about 2200. The samples are compacted to a relative density of 50% and a water content of 10% with a fiber content of 0.5% by weight of soil. The results show the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement in the strength increase of the samples compared to non-reinforced material. Thus, the parameters of resistance of the reinforced matrix exhibit remarkable increase. The values of mixtures friction angles are not influenced by aspect ratio of the fibers. However, the values of cohesive intercepts of the composites are strongly influenced by fibers aspect ratio. In addition, it is found an aspect ratio value from which the composites present more pronounced strain hardening features, around 300 in this study. It is also found that sand stiffness is not influenced by the micro-reinforcements inclusion. Similarly, the dilation behavior of sand is not significantly affected by fibers addition. However, the mixtures final stress ratio is reduced with the confining pressure increase and with the decrease of fibers aspect ratio value. Finally, the measurement of fiber lengths before and after the tests shows that the reinforcements do not break in tension. The failure is a composite of slippage and yielding of fibers.

Usualmente as propriedades do solo não são adequadas às características e às necessidades de projeto. É apresentada, como alternativa, a técnica de reforço com inclusão de elementos fibrosos à matriz de solo. Nesse sentido, a análise do comportamento mecânico de um solo micro-reforçado com fibras de distintos índices aspecto é objetivada. Para tanto, uma célula de compressão triaxial com medidas internas de deformações é construída, instrumentada e calibrada para realização de ensaios, sob trajetórias de tensões convencionais, em amostras com 100mm de diâmetro e 200mm de altura. O solo, uma areia fina, de granulometria uniforme, é reforçado com fibras de polipropileno com diferentes comprimentos, 12, 24, 36 e 50mm, e diferentes diâmetros, 0,023 e 0,100mm, equivalentes a índices aspecto entre 120 e 2174. As amostras apresentam densidade relativa de 50%, teor de umidade de 10% e adição de 0,5% de fibras em relação à massa de solo seco. Os resultados demonstram a eficácia da utilização do reforço no ganho de resistência das amostras em relação ao material nãoreforçado. Dessa forma, os parâmetros de resistência da matriz reforçada apresentam notável aumento. Os valores de ângulo de atrito interno das misturas não são influenciados pelo índice aspecto das fibras. Em contrapartida, os valores de intercepto coesivo dos compósitos são fortemente influenciados pelo índice aspecto dos reforços. Ainda, é verificado um valor de índice aspecto a partir do qual o compósito passa a apresentar comportamento de enrijecimento mais pronunciado, em torno de 300 neste estudo. É verificado, também, que a rigidez da areia não é alterada pela inclusão dos micro-reforços. Semelhantemente, o comportamento dilatante da areia não é sensivelmente afetado pela adição de fibras. Todavia, a relação de tensões final das misturas é reduzida com o aumento da tensão confinante e ampliada com o aumento do índice aspecto das fibras. Por fim, a medida dos comprimentos das fibras antes e após a realização dos ensaios mostra que os reforços não rompem por tração. A interação entre a matriz de solo e as fibras se dá através do deslizamento e do alongamento das fibras. / The study of the mechanical behavior of a soil micro-reinforced with distinct aspect ratios fibers is the purpose of this investigation. Thus, a triaxial compression cell is built and drained standard triaxial tests on 100mm diameter and 200mm high specimens are carried out. The soil, a uniform fine sand, is reinforced with polypropylene fibers with different lengths, 12, 24, 36 and 50mm, different diameters, 0.023 and 0.100mm, and consequently with a large spectrum of aspect ratios, up to about 2200. The samples are compacted to a relative density of 50% and a water content of 10% with a fiber content of 0.5% by weight of soil. The results show the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement in the strength increase of the samples compared to non-reinforced material. Thus, the parameters of resistance of the reinforced matrix exhibit remarkable increase. The values of mixtures friction angles are not influenced by aspect ratio of the fibers. However, the values of cohesive intercepts of the composites are strongly influenced by fibers aspect ratio. In addition, it is found an aspect ratio value from which the composites present more pronounced strain hardening features, around 300 in this study. It is also found that sand stiffness is not influenced by the micro-reinforcements inclusion. Similarly, the dilation behavior of sand is not significantly affected by fibers addition. However, the mixtures final stress ratio is reduced with the confining pressure increase and with the decrease of fibers aspect ratio value. Finally, the measurement of fiber lengths before and after the tests shows that the reinforcements do not break in tension. The failure is a composite of slippage and yielding of fibers.

Este trabalho apresenta resultados de ensaios de fluência de geotêxteis não tecidos executados em ensaios confinados. No equipamento utilizado, o reforço é confinado entre camadas de solo, permitindo que ambos os materiais tenham liberdade para apresentar deformações ao longo do tempo. Nesses ensaios, uma tensão vertical é aplicada ao solo que por sua vez solicita o reforço. Os ensaios foram realizados com três geotêxteis não tecidos, sendo dois de polipropileno e um de poliéster, e quatro tipos de solo confinante: três materiais granulares e uma argila silto-arenosa. Além disso, também foram executados ensaios de fluência não confinada para permitir comparação com os ensaios confinados. Os resultados indicaram que houve grande contribuição do confinamento na redução das deformações por fluência dos materiais ensaiados. Também foi avaliada a influência de alguns fatores na fluência confinada dos geotêxteis não tecidos, tais como: tipo de solo, tipo de geotêxtil e gramatura do reforço. Tais resultados são interessantes para avaliar o potencial de fluência do composto solo-geotêxtil que, normalmente, é baseado somente em ensaios no elemento isolado de reforço / This work presents results of creep tests on no woven geotextiles tested in confined lab tests. In the used equipment, the reinforcement is confined between two soil layers, allowing both materials to have freedom to deform with time. In those tests, a vertical stress is applied to the soil that transfers load to the reinforcement. The tests were performed using three no woven geotextiles, two of polypropylene and one of polyester, and four types of confining soil: three granular materials and sandy silty clay. Besides, unconfined creep tests were carried out to allow comparison with the confined tests. The results indicated that there was great contribution of the confinement in the reduction of the creep deformations of the tested materials. Also the influence of some factors was evaluated in the confined creep of the no woven geotextiles, such as: soil type, type of geotextile and mass per unit area of the reinforcement. Such results allow the evaluation of the potential of creep of the system soil-geotextile

Este trabalho aborda o comportamento de dois solos (uma argila e uma areia), reforçados com fibras plásticas de polipropileno. Os solos foram compactados no teor de umidade ótimo e peso específico seco máximo e foram misturados com fibras de diferentes teores e comprimentos. Os resultados dos ensaios de compressão simples foram usados para selecionar os teores e comprimentos ótimos de fibras. Os resultados mostraram que a resistência do solo arenoso cresceu com o aumento do teor e comprimento das fibras e o solo argiloso apresentou acréscimo de resistência, com o aumento do teor até o comprimento de fibra de 10 mm. As curvas tensão-deformação dos ensaios triaxiais, para solos com e sem reforço foram similares, com uma resistência de pico definida e pequena redução de queda de tensão pós pico. As amostras de solo arenoso apresentaram considerável aumento de resistência, com o aumento do teor e comprimento das fibras. Pequenos painéis, fabricados com o solo argiloso (300 x 300 x 100) mm, mostraram que a presença da fibra pode reduzir a magnitude das trincas quando comparados com o solo sem reforço. / This work presents the behavior of two soils (clay and sandy) reinforced with polypropylene plastic fibers. The soils were compacted at the optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit weight and were mixed with fibers of different lengths and contents. Unconfined compressive tests results were used to select the optimum fiber length and content. The results showed that the granular soil strength increased with increasing fiber length and content. The cohesive soil, on the other hand, showed strength up to fiber length of 10 mm. Stress - strain curves from triaxial tests for both reinforced and unreinforced cohesive soil were similar with a defined peak strength and small post peak reduction. Granular soil samples presented considerable strength increases with the increases of length and fiber content. Small panels fabricated with the reinforced cohesive soil (300 x 300 x 100) mm, showed that the presence of fiber can reduce crack magnitude when compared with the unreinforced soil.

Usualmente as propriedades do solo não são adequadas às características e às necessidades de projeto. É apresentada, como alternativa, a técnica de reforço com inclusão de elementos fibrosos à matriz de solo. Nesse sentido, a análise do comportamento mecânico de um solo micro-reforçado com fibras de distintos índices aspecto é objetivada. Para tanto, uma célula de compressão triaxial com medidas internas de deformações é construída, instrumentada e calibrada para realização de ensaios, sob trajetórias de tensões convencionais, em amostras com 100mm de diâmetro e 200mm de altura. O solo, uma areia fina, de granulometria uniforme, é reforçado com fibras de polipropileno com diferentes comprimentos, 12, 24, 36 e 50mm, e diferentes diâmetros, 0,023 e 0,100mm, equivalentes a índices aspecto entre 120 e 2174. As amostras apresentam densidade relativa de 50%, teor de umidade de 10% e adição de 0,5% de fibras em relação à massa de solo seco. Os resultados demonstram a eficácia da utilização do reforço no ganho de resistência das amostras em relação ao material nãoreforçado. Dessa forma, os parâmetros de resistência da matriz reforçada apresentam notável aumento. Os valores de ângulo de atrito interno das misturas não são influenciados pelo índice aspecto das fibras. Em contrapartida, os valores de intercepto coesivo dos compósitos são fortemente influenciados pelo índice aspecto dos reforços. Ainda, é verificado um valor de índice aspecto a partir do qual o compósito passa a apresentar comportamento de enrijecimento mais pronunciado, em torno de 300 neste estudo. É verificado, também, que a rigidez da areia não é alterada pela inclusão dos micro-reforços. Semelhantemente, o comportamento dilatante da areia não é sensivelmente afetado pela adição de fibras. Todavia, a relação de tensões final das misturas é reduzida com o aumento da tensão confinante e ampliada com o aumento do índice aspecto das fibras. Por fim, a medida dos comprimentos das fibras antes e após a realização dos ensaios mostra que os reforços não rompem por tração. A interação entre a matriz de solo e as fibras se dá através do deslizamento e do alongamento das fibras. / The study of the mechanical behavior of a soil micro-reinforced with distinct aspect ratios fibers is the purpose of this investigation. Thus, a triaxial compression cell is built and drained standard triaxial tests on 100mm diameter and 200mm high specimens are carried out. The soil, a uniform fine sand, is reinforced with polypropylene fibers with different lengths, 12, 24, 36 and 50mm, different diameters, 0.023 and 0.100mm, and consequently with a large spectrum of aspect ratios, up to about 2200. The samples are compacted to a relative density of 50% and a water content of 10% with a fiber content of 0.5% by weight of soil. The results show the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement in the strength increase of the samples compared to non-reinforced material. Thus, the parameters of resistance of the reinforced matrix exhibit remarkable increase. The values of mixtures friction angles are not influenced by aspect ratio of the fibers. However, the values of cohesive intercepts of the composites are strongly influenced by fibers aspect ratio. In addition, it is found an aspect ratio value from which the composites present more pronounced strain hardening features, around 300 in this study. It is also found that sand stiffness is not influenced by the micro-reinforcements inclusion. Similarly, the dilation behavior of sand is not significantly affected by fibers addition. However, the mixtures final stress ratio is reduced with the confining pressure increase and with the decrease of fibers aspect ratio value. Finally, the measurement of fiber lengths before and after the tests shows that the reinforcements do not break in tension. The failure is a composite of slippage and yielding of fibers.