<p> The purpose of this research was to improve the narrative writing of elementary students with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Research has indicated that students with ADHD were generally more likely to achieve academically at a level below their intellectual ability. As many as 65 percent of students with ADHD meet the qualifications for a learning disability in the area of writing. A literature review was conducted to identify evidence-based writing strategies for students with disabilities, and more specifically, ADHD. Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) is an evidence-based writing strategy for students with ADHD. SRSD has been shown to increase the length of student writing, increase the use of story parts in narrative writings, and improve the holistic quality of student compositions. One 4^th and two 5^th grade students&rsquo; writing samples were scored before and after learning a SRSD writing strategy and the results were measured. All three students demonstrated positive growth in use of story parts, and holistic quality and two of three students wrote longer stories.</p>

As the enrollment of students with autism in general education classrooms increases, the need for effective strategies to improve the quality of inclusive practices remains evident. This study examined peer support arrangements as an alternative to direct adult support for three high school students with autism. In addition, I explored structural analysis as a means of formative assessment to further refine each peer support arrangement to better meet the individual needs of students. Peer support arrangements were associated with increases in social interactions and academic engagement for all participants. In addition, structural analyses implemented in general education classrooms yielded findings used to further refine peer support arrangements. These findings strengthen support for peer support arrangements as a means of improving the inclusive experiences of high school students with autism and highlight the potential of structural analysis as a feasible and effective means of further refining these interventions. Based on these findings, I offer implications for practice and directions for future research.

Special education development progresses through predictable stages as a result of social, political and economic forces. These influential forces are conveyed through efforts of agencies and individuals from within and outside the nation. Despite these efforts, approximately 2% of the estimated 140 million disabled children in developing nations receive an education (UNESCO, 1988). A case study in Mauritius investigated the interrelationships among forces influencing special education development for the benchmark years 1976, 1982 and 1991. The study employed six methods for data collection: (1) a document search, (2) personal communications, (3) an inventory of resources and a survey of needs, (4) the researcher's participation, (5) a survey questionnaire, and (6) an interview questionnaire. There were eight major findings of the investigation: (1) A relationship exists between economic growth and special education development. This finding supports a Resource Hypothesis posited by Putnam (1979). (2) Economics is not the only force influencing special education development. Interviewed leaders regarded social forces as somewhat more influential than economic and political forces. Additionally, analysis of 480 events related to special education revealed that 55% were social/political and 45% were economic. (3) The vast majority (96% to 98%) of the estimated 32,186 children with disabilities in Mauritius were not enrolled in special education. (4) Special education development in Mauritius adhered to sequential pattern of development as suggested in UNESCO's (1974) Developmental Stages Hypothesis. (5) The per pupil costs for special education students was 1.6 times less expensive than for pupils in ordinary education. This contradicts findings that special education is more expensive than ordinary education (Hegarty, 1990). (6) Ideologies and individual efforts are the most influential social forces. The role of religion, culture and social advocates, especially parents, has largely affected special education development in Mauritius. (7) Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are more influential than government agencies in special education development. NGOs were involved in 62% of the events studied. (8) International assistance is highly influential in special education development. International agencies were involved in 44% of special education events in Mauritius between 1976 and 1991.

Prior research has examined how students with disabilities influence their peersâ academic and behavioral outcomes but little current research has examined how students with disabilities impact their teachers. Using data from kindergarten through twelfth grade teachers in North Carolina over three years, I used multilevel models to examined if the proportion of students with disabilities in teachersâ classes was associated with teacher attrition, both leaving and total attrition. When students with disabilities were considered as one group, teaching a mix of students with and without disabilities was associated with a 9â16% decrease in the odds of leaving and a 20â23% decrease in the odds of total attrition, compared to teachers without students with disabilities in their classrooms and controlling for teacher, classroom and school characteristics. However, this association varied by disability label. Teachers who taught classrooms that contained all students with behavior disorders, intellectual disabilities, or other health impairments had 1.6â3 times the odds of total attrition than teachers without any students without disabilities in their classes after the addition of control variables. There was no evidence that certification in special education moderated the association between teaching students with disabilities and leaving teaching, but some tentative evidence that certification in special education acted as a moderator for total attrition, but not for all disability categories. Overall, the results suggested that teachersâ career choices might be influenced by teaching students with disabilities, both positively and negatively depending on the disability label. I discussed the results in the context of the job demands-resources model and presented areas for future research.

<p> This study was designed to examine the implicit theories of intelligence of adult learners with learning disabilities (LD). It explored how the adult learners thought about intelligence and how they experienced intelligence in their lives both in and out of school. </p><p> Data for the study were collected by interviewing 15 adult learners with learning disabilities. Each adult learner participated in a series of three interviews, each with its own purpose: a focused life history, an examination of recent experiences related to intelligence in school and out of school, and sense-making of experiences with intelligence and related to having learning disability. The <i>Theories of Intelligence Scale &ndash; Self Form for Adults</i> (Dweck, 2009) was also administered during the final interview. </p><p> The study found that the adult learners with learning disabilities had multifaceted and contextualized understandings of intelligence. Self-esteem was a particularly powerful factor when it came to the adult learners&rsquo; understanding and experience of their own intelligence. While most of the learners demonstrated a fixed mindset, there were indications that their mindsets were transforming, especially as their confidence as learners grew. The adult learners&rsquo; implicit theories of intelligence seemed to have been largely shaped by outside messages. The often negative messages they received early in life and the largely positive messages they received in their adult education center were described as being particularly impactful. Finally, having a learning disability appeared to complicate the adult learners&rsquo; experiences of their own intelligence. They often feared and experienced the negative stereotypes held by themselves and others about individuals with learning disabilities. On the contrary, many experienced a greater sense of their own intelligence after receiving a diagnosis and understanding what it meant to have a learning disability.</p>

<p> Currently, the majority of students with disabilities are educated in a general education classroom, which led to a paradigm shift and pedagogies used to meet the needs of all students. The research problem was that general education teachers use of highly effective evidence-based interventions that improve academic achievement for students with disabilities was unknown, and it was not known why some teachers did not use these practices more frequently. The purpose of the study was to discover how frequently general education teachers implemented highly effective evidence-based interventions to improve academic achievement for students with disabilities, and why some teachers did not use these interventions. Bandura&rsquo;s Social Learning Theory and Vygotsky&rsquo;s Sociocultural Learning Theory were the framework for the study. A qualitative research approach using 30 videotaped lessons from the Measures of Effective Teaching Longitudinal study and 18 teacher interviews were used to answer the research questions. Videotaped lessons were scored for the use of highly effective evidence-based interventions that improve academic achievement for students with disabilities. Structured teacher interviews included the use of highly effective evidence-based practices, how frequently these practices were used weekly, and barriers that prevented them from using these best practices. Analysis of the frequency of use for highly effective evidence-based practices indicated that 90% of the teachers in the videos used explicit instruction, 27% used graphic organizers, and 10% used peer tutoring. Nonetheless, analysis of teacher interviews indicated explicit instruction and peer-tutoring were used by 100% of the teachers, 94% used reading comprehension strategies, 83% used inquiry based learning, 78% used graphic organizers, and mnemonics were used by 72% of the teachers. Barriers to implementing evidence-based practices were lack of time, money, resources, and efficacy to choose evidence-based practices for students with disabilities. Schools need to provide shared planning time, make better use of resources, and provide teacher training to build teachers&rsquo; efficacy to implement these best practices. Further research is recommended on the use of evidence-based practices in general education classrooms for students with disabilities using a larger sampling of general education teachers to increase the reliability and validity of the findings.</p>

<p> The purpose of this research was to determine if implementation of Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) is effective in improving the social skills of children with autism. Data was collected in the context of an alternating treatment design across three children who had deficits in social skills; specifically, in initiating play, taking turns, and sustaining length of engagement. The intervention included using preferred stimuli, child choice, task variation, reinforcing attempts, natural environment, and natural reinforcers. Results of the study indicated that all three children increased their number of turns taken and length of engagement during intervention. The effects of PRT are discussed in relation to existing research.</p>

Youth in correctional facilities often exhibit low mathematical achievement, which may threaten their future independence. In order to build math literacy among youth in correctional facilities, facility instructors need access to timely and informative mathematical assessment (Grigorenko et al., 2013; Hart et al, 2012). Researchers also need data on the math achievement of youth in correctional facilities in order to support math intervention research. To date, no peer-reviewed research has reported on the specific math achievement deficits of youth in juvenile corrections in a way that could be used to inform instruction. The purpose of this descriptive study was to measure and report the comprehensive math achievement of youth in short- and long-term juvenile justice facilities overall and by demographic characteristics. For all youth participants, the assessment battery included two standardized measures of math achievement, one broad and one specific to skills that support algebra, and an assessment of math achievement related to algebra readiness. Math achievement was also measured by student acquisition of Algebra I credit. Study findings indicated that in long- and short-term facilities, youth demonstrated standardized math achievement deficits, and youth with disabilities and African American youth scored lower on individual measures of standardized achievement than their nondisabled, White peers. In regression analyses controlling for race, it was found that race did not significantly contribute to the variance student math scores, although special education status did, as did Algebra I completion. Overall, youth demonstrated a high rate of Algebra I completion, although this outcome varied according to special education status and setting type. Implications for policymakers, research, and practice are discussed.

Ample evidence supports functional behavioral assessments (FBA) and function-based behavior intervention plans (BIP) as an efficacious intervention method under controlled and supportive research conditions for general education students with ongoing patterns of serious challenging behavior. Yet, insufficient information exists to verify FBAs and BIPs as similarly effective when applied by school practitioners in real-world general education settings. I surveyed 144 general education teachers about FBAs and BIPs for use with elementary-aged, general education students without disabilities. Specifically, I asked teachers to report their perceptions about knowledge and confidence, appropriateness and usefulness, willingness to implement given an optimal teaching situation with ample time and resources, ability to implement given resources available within existing teaching position, and supports most needed for successful implementation. Overall teachers reported they were neutral to somewhat confident about conducting FBAs and implementing BIPs, and somewhat agreeable about appropriateness, usefulness, and willingness to implement given an optimal teaching situation. Teachers generally reported insufficient time, training, and supports were available within their current teaching position, which interfered with their ability to implement FBAs and BIPs, and all additional supports were very important and needed. I offer potential explanations for these findings, and implications for policy makers and school practitioners.

SPECIAL EDUCATION Adapting the Question Answer Relationship Strategy for Middle School Students with Intellectual Disabilities Kimberly A. Davidson Dissertation under the direction of Professor Christopher J. Lemons Much of the literacy research conducted with students with intellectual disabilities focuses on foundational, discrete reading skills such as letter and word identification, phonological awareness, phonics, and vocabulary. Few reading comprehension studies have been conducted for students with intellectual disabilities. The Question Answer Relationships (QAR) strategy has mixed evidence supporting its use with students who are typically developing, students at-risk of developing reading disabilities, and students with learning and intellectual disabilities. This experimental single case design study was conducted to examine the effects of instruction with an adapted version of the QAR strategy on answering text-dependent questions for students with intellectual disabilities. The participants were middle school students with intellectual disabilities who had varying levels of support needs. Three levels of scaffolding were provided in the intervention. Following intervention, each participant was able to learn the strategy steps and apply them to increase the percent of correct responses to three types of factual questions. However, students did not maintain mastery response levels after the intervention ended.