The extant medically and socially important cobras have been the subject to several comparative taxonomic studies since the 1940s, but still lack an inclusive and thorough phylogenetic tree. With recent major advancements in phylogenetic analysis, it is now common to use multiple independent loci for studying the phylogenetic relationships within groups. For the first time, 27 from the 29 identified Naja species, alongside 5 putative new or elevated species had 4426 base pairs across 1701 sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data analysed. The results continue to support the monophyletic core cobra clade encompassing the genera Walterinnesia, Aspidelaps, Hemachatus, Pseudohaje and Naja (1.0 Bayesian posterior probability (BPP)), in addition to the grouping of four monophyletic subgenera within Naja. The group of African spitting cobras, Afronaja, is positioned as the sister group to the rest of the genus. Moderate support (0.8 BPP) is found for the grouping of the Asian cobras, Naja, with the African non-spitting cobras, Ureaus. The closest relative to the genus Naja is Pseudohaje goldii, a genus and species never before included in phylogenetic analysis, followed by the sister taxa Hemachatus haemachatus. The king cobra continues to be positioned outside the core cobra group, sister to Hemibungarus calligaster. The results support the hypothesis of three independent origins of spitting, once in the monotypic Hemachatus haemachatus, once within the subgenus Afronaja, and the final origin within the Asian cobras, subgenus Naja. The relationships found were broadly consistent with previous studies, with the additional inclusion of more species creating the most comprehensive cobra phylogeny to date. Further molecular analysis, specifically species delimitation, must be undertaken to ascertain the position of the 5 putative new species included in this study.

The sharpnose pufferfish Canthigaster valentini is widespread over the Indo-Pacific tropical coral-reef region. The social system contains territorial male, non-territorial male, and territorial female. Territorial male always occupy a fixed territory and own several territorial females forming a harem in its territory. Previous researches were concerned about field observations or laboratory tests for agonistic respondences towards self-mirror stimuli. Research on dyad interaction is rarely seen in literature. The first objective of this study focuses on the agonistic interactions between two individuals from different combinations of the abovementioned (i.e., male-male and female-female) social categories under a more spacious laboratory condition. Characteristics for intra-individual behavioral sequences were described and compared. Besides, attentions were also paid to the possible factors (e.g., sex, social status) controlling the major aggressive display (i.e., Circling). The second objective is to conduct research on the water spitting behavior of this species that I had discovered. Factors including body size, presence of food and depth of water were tested to see if any of them is the releasing factor for this behavior. The amount of information transmitted in an intra-individual behavior sequence for a male winner was highest, whereas that for a female winner was lowest. Except for Circling, FRD, FLD, and HD were the other major aggressive behaviors. The average number of aggressive behavior in an intra-individual behavior sequence and display time for male were higher than that for female. More attacks were launched in female pairs than in male pairs. For female pairs, attacks were performed by both contestants , whereas only the winners attacked its opponent in male pairs. Male tended to launch the first attack after the longest Circling but that situation did not hold for female. Circling , a agonistic behavior nor quantitatively described in other studies, can be classified into S-type and C-type. The probability of occurrences for these two types of circling were not significant different. Cycle number was higher in the early phase of an aggressive interaction in male pairs. And male spent more time in circling during an aggressive interaction. Under the experimental setting of this study, body length did not affect the outcomes of a aggressive contest. For male pairs, ratio of body high/body length played a role in determining the outcomes. Presence of food , water depth, and movement of objects above the holding aquarium were all releasing factors for the water spitting behavior and presence of food might be the most important one.