The purposes of this study were: (1) to identify the delineation of organizational centrality among NCAA Division I athletic departments, to determine the extent to which centrality as defined by Grusky Theory of Formal Structure (1963) impacts the selection of NCAA Division I collegiate athletic directors; (2) to identify a pattern of racial or gender stacking among central positions within intercollegiate athletic administration. The sample consisted of 838 athletic administrators from 170 NCAA Division I member institutions. The survey was comprised of items pertaining to the rates of professional interaction between athletic administrators, position title, the title of the individual to whom they report, and other demographic data. A Social Distance Scale was constructed in order to determine the formal structure and a model of centrality for a typical athletic department. Career paths of current athletic directors were analyzed and the relationships between centrality and leadership selection were assessed. The results of the data revealed that while significant differences were found between the proportions of ADs with at least one and three years of experience in a central position, there were no differences in the proportion of ADs with five or more years in central positions. The inconclusiveness of these results led to the consideration of an alternate definition of centrality based not on interaction as in Grusky's Theory of Formal Structure, but rather on the three following factors: 1) Job Descriptors 2) Previous Experience, and 3) Job Title. Potential differences across racial and gender lines were also assessed with regard to the occupancy of central positions. While there were no significant differences between male and female administrators under the Grusky model of centrality, minorities were found to be underrepresented in central administrative areas. Chi-square tests for goodness of fit and proportionality and ANOVA were used to analyze all data. From these data, it was concluded that less emphasis is placed on the traditional elements of the career trajectory for ADs (e.g. coaching, athletic participation) with a greater emphasis on business acumen. Further it was concluded that based on the background analysis of current ADs as well as present job descriptions, that experience in administrative areas that incorporate business principles (e.g. business/finance, marketing, sport oversight, fundraising/development) appear to be most critical (i.e. central) in this process. Finally, the study also revealed some evidence of racial and gender stacking among intercollegiate athletic institutions. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management & Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2004. / May 27, 2004. / Leadership Development, Sport Sociology / Includes bibliographical references. / E. Newton Jackson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; Susan Losh, Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member; Beverly Yerg, Committee Member.

Previous research suggests that as students age their interest in physical education seems to fade. There has been limited research comparing elementary, middle, and high school student's interest in physical education and even less research relating ethnicity as a variable. Curriculum, perceived competence and teacher's influence have been offered, in previous research, as reasons why students like or dislike physical education. The purpose of this study is to compare the differences or similarities between elementary, middle, and high school student's interest in physical education considering students' ethnicity and gender. Participants were 139 (9th graders) high school students, 230 (7th graders) middle school students, and 99 (5th graders) elementary school students enrolled in eighteen intact physical education classes for a total of 468 students. The locations consisted of one high school, one middle school, and one elementary school at ethnically diverse, low to middle socioeconomic status, Northwestern Florida schools. Fourteen experienced physical education teachers, 4 females and 10 males, conducted all classes. The Physical Education Interest Questionnaire was the instrument used for this study. The questionnaire was developed to measure interest in physical education and related factors (Van Wersch, Trew, & Turner, 1992). The Physical Education Interest Questionnaire is a 35-item survey. Two open-ended questions were added to the end of the survey asking students to list what they liked most and disliked least about physical education. The survey was found to be r = .70 reliable by way of split-half reliability testing. All of the students were given the same survey and had approximately 50 minutes to complete. Results indicated that students regardless of race, grade level and gender maintained positive interest in physical education. There was a significant difference between male and female participants where male students maintained more positive interest in physical education than female students. Previous research supports these findings by stating that most physical education programs maintained a more male dominate team sport curricula, which are typically considered less desirable to female students. Also there was a significant difference between grade levels. Fifth grade students maintained higher interest in physical education than seventh and ninth graders. This may have something to do with the fact that the younger students are physiologically at their peak. These student's metabolisms are the highest that they will be in their lifetime. Physical education tends to be their only release from sitting behind a desk all day. Finally, when comparing grade level with race results indicated that there was a significant different between Caucasian and African American students interest in physical education. Fifth grade Caucasian students maintained significantly higher interest in physical education than their African American counterparts. On the contrary, African American seventh and ninth grade students maintained significantly higher interest in physical education than their Caucasian equals. Fifth and seventh grade students ranked student's perceived competence first whereas ninth grade students ranked curriculum first by way of stepwise regression as having the most affect on their overall interest in physical education. The scope of the study was limited to three independent variables: student's perceived competence, curriculum, and teacher influence as reasons why students maintained interest in physical education or not. Reasons why students maintain interest in physical education are complex and need further study. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2004. / June 30, 2004. / Interest, Attitudes, Gender, Grade Level, Racial, Race, Students, Physical Education, Differences, Survey, Likes, Dislikes / Includes bibliographical references. / Charles Imwold, Professor Directing Dissertation; Tonya Toole, Outside Committee Member; Anahita Mistry, Committee Member; Thomas Ratliffe, Committee Member.

The importance of sports and brands (e.g., New York Yankees, Harley-Davidson, Apple) in today's society is well-documented. The co-consumption of sports and brands often brings people together (Bale, 2003; Bouet, 1966; Brown, Kozinets, & Sherry, 2003), and consumers of the same sport or brand often form a community. In the business literature, these communities are called "brand communities" (McAlexander, Schouten, & Koenig, 2002; Muniz & O'Guinn, 2001). While brand communities are a popular research topic in the business literature, the sport field is only in the beginning stages of applying this idea. As such, the impact of such communities with sport brands is not well understood. In order to investigate the outcomes of brand communities, we must better understand the process of introducing and developing sport brand communities. The purpose of this research is to identify and better understand the relationships among the antecedents (e.g. causes) and consequences (e.g., outcomes) of consumer participation in a sport brand community. A hypothesized model of the relationships among four antecedents (brand knowledge, brand satisfaction, brand identification, and sense of sport brand community (sense of sport brand community is composed of membership and geographic sense of community) and three consequences (brand loyalty, brand image, and behavioral intentions (behavioral intentions is composed of attendance, purchase, and word of mouth) of a sport brand community is proposed. Using Churchill's (1979) guidelines for creating better marketing measures, ten constructs for testing the model of consumer participation in a sport brand community were identified. One hundred twenty-four items in total were utilized to measure the ten constructs, and a three-step ad hoc content analysis was conducted by two marketing academics, two expert methodologists, and the author of this research. Fifty-eight items were judged to have content validity. The fifty-eight items were tested in a pilot study with a convenience sample (n = 113). An examination of the results of the pilot study revealed that the fifty-eight items measuring the ten constructs showed evidence of reliability. One issue was noted with the construct of brand identification. As a result, four items were added to measure this construct. The main study included the sixty-two items which were tested on a convenience sample (n = 627). In order to conduct CFA and SEM procedures, the sample was split into two subsamples (n1 = 314 and n2 = 313). The reliabilities of the sixty-two items were examined using subsample 1. It was concluded from the results that twenty-five items were problematic and therefore removed. The validity of the thirty-seven items were assessed using subsample 1. The items showed evidence of both convergent and discriminant validity. Finally, thirty-one hypothesized relationships were tested using SEM procedures on the data from subsample 2. The SEM results led the researcher to conclude there was empirical support for ten of the thirty-one hypothesized relationships. Due to the existence of four fully-mediated relationships, nine total effects were identified. In addition, the fit indices for the structural model suggested good fit to the data, and the model explained between 46.4% and 78.4% of the variance in the five endogenous constructs (e.g., brand loyalty, brand image, attendance intentions, purchase intentions, and word of mouth intentions). Sports are used to bridge and bond individuals together. Based on the connections and relationships that develop around a sport brand, organization or team, the co-consumption or co-creation of a sporting event affects consumers' affiliations, attitudes, behaviors, and lives. As a result, a sport organization has the opportunity to facilitate and expand the development of such relationships. Moreover, the development of these relationships can be used to increase the resources consumers allocate toward a sport organization, brand, and goods and services (e.g., the game). While many sport management and marketing practitioners and academics debate how to best satisfy the wants and needs of consumers, the establishment, development, and maintenance of successful relationships between consumers and the sport organization, brand, and team is accomplished through creation and utilization of sport brand communities. In order to better understand how to successfully create and utilize sport brand communities, more research needs to be conducted and more understanding needs to be gained about how sport brand communities develop, improve, and extend relationships with consumers. This research provides an initial framework and model that provides suggestions and evidence that can be used to improve the effectiveness of sport brand communities. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2011. / October 25, 2011. / Brand, Community, Consumer Behavior, Marketing, Sport, Tribal Consumption / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; J. Joseph Cronin, Jr., University Representative; Michael M. Mondello, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

Despite the popularity of innovation adoption and diffusion research in a variety of disciplines, there has been little knowledge of innovation adoption and diffusion in the area of sport management. This study attempted to link the Diffusion of Innovation Theory to a boom in the MLB stadium construction observed since Baltimore's Oriole Park at Camden Yards. This stadium was constructed in 1992 and represents the start of the current era of baseball stadium construction. The proposed study attempted to identify and empirically test the determinants influencing the construction of MLB stadiums from both teams' and city governments' perspectives. In other words, what factors drive both a team and city government to adopt stadium construction? It was intended to justify the idea of a diffusion effect; that is, to show that MLB teams and city governments emulate other teams' and cities' construction of new stadiums to achieve some of the advantages observed from others' constructions. Given the longitudinal nature of the stadium construction process, event history analysis (EHA) was performed to test the significance of the determinant factors influencing the adoption of stadium construction from both teams' and city governments' perspectives. Overall, considering the observed time period (22 years) and the number of MLB teams and their cities adopting construction of a new stadium, the proposed model supported most hypotheses with a high Pseudo R² value of 0.48. The empirical results provided practical implications to both sport franchise owners and city officials considering the construction of a new stadium by providing useful information about several ways to increase the likelihood of stadium construction adoption. The current study contributed to the sport management literature by providing an initial effort to conceptually develop and then empirically test a model of innovation adoption and diffusion in the context of sport. Furthermore, the proposed model also provided numerous opportunities for sport scholars to continue advancing our knowledge of innovation adoption and diffusion in sport. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2012. / March 13, 2012. / Innovation diffusion, MLB, stadium financing / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Mondello, Professor Directing Dissertation; Frances Stokes Berry, University Representative; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member; Pamela Perrewé, Committee Member.

The Heisman Memorial Trophy is awarded each year to the best college football player in the United States. In 2003, voters chose Jason White from the University of Oklahoma as the winner. The eligible voters consisted of 870 members of the media (divided evenly in six geographic regions) and 51 former living Heisman Trophy winners. Throughout the last several decades, colleges and universities have promoted its players in hopes of garnering the prestigious award. There is much speculation as to what positively influences voters as they decide the Heisman Trophy winner. This dissertation examines what information is important to voters as they determine their Heisman Trophy vote. The results of this study show non-mediated communication has a stronger influence on voters than does mediated communication. Observations and personal influences are more important to voters than receiving propaganda from a university promoting a player. In addition, there was a regional voting bias as each of the top four finalists received considerably more than one-sixth of their first-place votes from the voters in their geographic region. Generally, voters believe they have an open mind and will cast their ballot for the nation's top candidate. However, the voters perceive their fellow voters are much more likely to choose a candidate from their geographic region as their top choice. Finally, it was hypothesized the less a voter watched their candidate during the season, the more they would rely on mediated communication for information gathering. However, it was determined there was no relationship between the number of times a voter saw their top choice play and their reliance on mediated communication. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2005. / April 7, 2005. / College Football, Sports Information Director, Award / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Mondello, Professor Directing Dissertation; Davis Houck, Outside Committee Member; R. Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; Julia Dunn, Committee Member.

Interviews conducted with teachers and students suggest that girls may accumulate more physical activity receiving physical education class separate from boys. Few studies have actually measured student's physical activity levels in coeducational and single gender settings. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of coeducational and single gender game play settings on the activity levels of African-American and Caucasian, male and female high school physical education students. Participants were 209 students enrolled in six physical education classes at an ethnically diverse, low to middle socioeconomic, Northwestern Florida high school. Three experienced physical education teachers, one female and two males, conducted all classes. Students participated in the schools regular team sport curriculum of flag football, ultimate Frisbee, and soccer. Two coeducational classes remained coeducational during game play, two coeducational classes were split into male and female teams for game play, one class was exclusively females-only, and one class was exclusively males-only throughout the study. Digi-walker pedometers were worn by students and used to monitor activity levels during 30 minutes of game play in each physical education class over six lessons in each team sport unit. Results indicated that boys were more active than girls in each activity regardless of setting. Caucasian males were more active than African-American males, and Caucasian females were more active than African-American females. Contrary to expectations, there were no differences in activity levels for girls (overall and by race) in this study between coeducational and single gender flag football, ultimate Frisbee, and soccer game play settings. Contrary to expectations, male students were less physically active in males-only than coeducational and coed-split ultimate Frisbee and soccer game play. Lower activity levels of African-American males made a significant contribution to these differences. Teacher interaction rate may have contributed to the differences or lack of differences between groups, particularly in the males-only setting. Survey results indicate that team sport preferences by gender and race may have contributed to differences in overall activity levels. Implications of coeducational and single gender physical education are complex and need further study. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2004. / February 24, 2004. / Physical Activity, Coeducational, Single Gender, Physical Education / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas Ratliffe, Professor Directing Dissertation; Doris Abood, Outside Committee Member; Anahita Mistry, Committee Member; Charles Imwold, Committee Member.

Physical education teachers have been encouraged to do their part to increase students' moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) while participating in physical education classes to help fight the obesity epidemic. Research involving the Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids Physical Education (SPARK PE) curriculum has shown an increase in student participation patterns in classes [i.e. participation in MVPA for greater than 50% of class time] and increased fitness performance (i.e. walk/run and sit-ups) (Stone, McKenzie, Welk, & Booth, 1998). There is a need for students to adopt and maintain a physically active lifestyle to receive health benefits including the maintenance of a normal body weight. Schools must begin to examine ways to increase student physical activity levels both during and beyond the school day to help students create and maintain healthier lives. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a physical education professional development intervention on the physical activity levels and fitness performance of 4th and 5th grade students in one school district. Research questions that guided this study were (a) What was the state of student physical activity levels during physical education class and teachers' promotion of student physical activity opportunities beyond physical education class in Lowe County Schools? (b) How does a professional development intervention affect student levels of physical activity and physical fitness in Lowe County Schools? (c) What were the barriers teachers faced in Lowe County Schools when trying to increase student physical activity during and beyond physical education class? and (d) What were the strengths of the professional development program provided to physical education teachers in Lowe County Schools? Twenty-one physical education teachers and two fourth and fifth grade classes at fourteen elementary schools (6 Non-Title I and 8 Title I) participated in the study. Throughout the 2006-2007 school year the physical education teachers where involved in professional development opportunities that included full day group staff development workshops, individual on-site visits, individual feedback on effective teaching skills from videotaped lessons, individual time analysis results from videotaped lessons, and individual goal setting challenges. Data collection on students in this study consisted of height and weight measurements to assess body mass index (BMI) and health-related fitness tests (FITNESSGRAM) to assess cardio-respiratory endurance (mile run/walk), muscular strength and endurance (push-ups, trunk lift, and curl-ups), and flexibility (sit-and-reach). Data on physical education teachers included observations with field notes, teacher interviews, teacher lesson plans, SPARK activity logs, SPARK PE assessments, School Health Index (SHI) surveys, weekly progress reports (WPR), website frequencies, Promote Physical Activity (PPA) surveys, and professional development surveys to describe teachers' responses and behaviors to the intervention. The Time Analysis (TA) and System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) observation data were collected from four videotaped lessons to measure teacher effectiveness in relation to student activity levels. All data collection was conducted and coded by a team of trained personnel from the university. Quantitative analysis for this study included descriptive statistics, comparing means, graphing trends, and non-parametric statistics. Qualitative analysis included document analysis and line-by-line coding within case and cross case analysis to establish themes. Trustworthiness in analyzing qualitative data was achieved through triangulation of multiple data sources and member checking. Results in this study revealed that the professional development (PD) intervention had a positive impact on the amount of student motor activity and MVPA time students received in physical education. The PD staff development and on-site visits were helpful in closing the student "activity gap" between Title I and Non-Title I physical education classes. As a result of the intervention, teachers became more aware of the importance of promoting student physical activity during and beyond their classes. Weekly progress reports, sharing Time Analysis and SOFIT data with teachers, individual goal setting, collaboration with other colleagues, PD on-site support and follow-up were found to be reasons why teachers were able to make a positive change in increasing students physical activity levels. Teachers' reported that they enjoyed the opportunity to collaborate with other physical education professionals, they liked how the PD program challenged them to think about their teaching, and they liked the activities in the SPARK PE curriculum and how it helped them improve health and fitness levels of their students. Results from FITNESSGRAM show that the PD intervention did have a positive effect on improving student fitness scores from pre-to-post on three of the seven student fitness scores (mile run, push-ups, trunk lift). Teachers listed lack of time, space and facilities, and support as barriers they faced when trying to increase student physical activity during and beyond physical education class. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sports Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2007. / June 26, 2007. / Elementary, Sofit, Spark, Staff Development, Activity Gap, Fitness, Professional Development, Physical Education, Physical Activity / Includes bibliographical references. / Susan Lynn, Professor Directing Dissertation; Elizabeth Jakubowski, Outside Committee Member; Thomas Ratliffe, Committee Member; Charles Imwold, Committee Member.

With increasing attention being given to corporate social responsibility (CSR) by scholars, it has become apparent that the focus has been somewhat one sided in nature, with the bulk of attention going to the corporate motives, processes, and outcomes of such efforts. Less prevalent has been a focus on the beneficiaries of CSR, and thus lost in the conversation has been the critical aspect of "social impact" of such activities (Porter & Kramer, 2006). The purpose of the current study was to explore the idea of social impact, by qualitatively assessing the outcomes of a golf management company CSR initiative within the elementary school system. Through a series of interviews with program stakeholders, secondary document analysis, and personal observations, the researchers were able to assess the impact on participants (N=23), make suggestions for improvement for the future, and ascertain the degree of strategic congruence between the program and the overall corporate mission. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2009. / February 5, 2009. / Social Impact, Corporate Social Responsibility, Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Mondello, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; R. Aubrey Kent, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Robert Brymer, Outside Committee Member; Andy Rudd, Committee Member.

This study is introduced with a review of Funk and James (2001), Funk, Haugtvedt, and Howard (2000), and Krosnick and Petty (1995), which provide the basis for measuring psychological commitment. It is proposed that a better understanding of the concept of attitude strength may provide insight into the antecedents and the primary evidence (resistance to change) of psychological commitment. More specifically, Funk et al. (2000) suggest that various attitudinal properties (e.g., knowledge, extremity, importance) may function as antecedents of psychological commitment. This understanding provides a direction for conceptualizing and measuring the factors comprising psychological commitment to a sports team. The conceptual model of psychological commitment to a sports team proposed that the antecedents of psychological commitment are represented by nine attitude properties, categorized into three strength-related dimensions: (1) cognitive structure - affective reaction, cognitive reaction, amount of knowledge, direct experience, and accessibility, (2) subjective beliefs - personal relevance, certainty, and importance of the attitude object, and (3) attitude valence - extremity attributes. The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding of the antecedents of psychological commitment to a sports team through a conceptual model based on the concept of attitude strength, and the causal relationship between psychological commitment to a sports team and resistance to changing team allegiance. Based upon the results of the pilot study and preliminary analysis of the main study, accessibility, direct experience, and personal relevance were dropped. In doing so, the proposed model of psychological commitment was revised. The measurement models and the structural model were analyzed. The results of the measurement models indicated that the proposed model of psychological commitment to a sports team was confirmed as well as the results of structural model indicated that resistance to changing team allegiance was directly influenced by psychological commitment to a sports team. The findings of this study will contribute not only to an extension of the knowledge base of psychological commitment to a sports team in the area of sport marketing, but also to practical applications for sport-team marketers and managers. The findings of this study suggest several directions for future study. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2005. / November 18, 2005. / Psychological Commitment, Attitude Strength / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Leisa Flynn, Outside Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member; Harry Kwon, Committee Member; Joohyun Lee, Committee Member.

There is abundant research pointing out the physiological and psychological benefits of physical activity for children (CDC, 2010a), so providing opportunities for children to be active is necessary and beneficial. "Classroom Exercises for the Body and Brain" was developed in the state of Georgia by the HealthMPowers organization to help classroom teachers provide structured physical activity in their classrooms for their students that can be done at their desks as exercise breaks, used as energy boosters, or for rainy day recess. According to the HealthMPowers (2009) organization, exercise interventions or classroom energizers are practical and time-efficient ways to increase student activity time, help focus student's attention, and provide activity that is moderate to vigorous. Many of these exercise programs are designed with good intentions, but have little data to support their claims. The purpose of this thesis was to investigate the intensity levels of nine to ten year old students participating in a video classroom exercise program in a regular classroom setting. Twenty-five fourth grade students (10 females and 15 males), from one intact class participated in this study. Four DVD video exercise sessions ranging from 1 minute 45 seconds to 2 minutes 30 seconds in length were investigated. Data were collected twice on each of the four video exercise sessions. Data collection occurred on six days over a four week period. On the first day students' were measured for weight, height, and waist circumference and learned how to properly put on the heart rate monitors. On the second day students practiced using the heart rate monitors, learned how to perform the exercise videos, and practiced the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) scale. During the final four days of data collection, students participated in two video sessions each day. A thirty minute break was given to students in between each video to allow the heart to return to a sitting heart rate level. Results revealed that the intensity of the exercise videos resulted in almost all students reaching their target heart rate zone. There was no significant relationship found between peak exercise heart rate and responses to the RPE scale, waist circumference, or BMI. The exercise video with the highest mean heart rate was "Pretend Jump Rope" (M=162.4, SD=16.45) and the lowest mean heart rate was from "Chair Aerobics" (M=142.86, SD=23.75). The exercise videos "Air Step Aerobics" (M=148.86, SD=24.76) and "Mind in Motion" (M=148.94, SD=16.20) had similar intensity levels. Students and the teacher reported positive feelings towards the exercise video program. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2011. / February 16, 2011. / Physical Education, Heart Rate, Video Exercise, Classroom Exercise, Exercise Intensity, Physical Activity / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas Ratliffe, Professor Directing Thesis; Lynn Panton, Committee Member; Alysia Roehrig-Bice, Committee Member.