This thesis investigates topology optimization techniques for periodic continuum structures at the macroscopic level. Periodic structures are increasingly used in the design of structural systems and sub-systems of buildings, vehicles, aircrafts, etc. The duplication of identical or similar modules significantly reduces the manufacturing cost and greatly simplifies the assembly process. Optimization of periodic structures in the micro level has been extensively researched in the context of material design, while research on topology optimization for macrostructures is very limited and has great potential both economically and intellectually. In the present thesis, numerical algorithms based on the bi-directional evolutionary structural optimization method (BESO) are developed for topology optimization for various objectives and constraints. Soft-kill (replacing void elements with soft elements) formulations of topology optimization problems for solid-void solutions are developed through appropriate material interpolation schemes. Incorporating the optimality criteria and algorithms for mesh-independence and solution-convergence, the present BESO becomes a reliable gradient based technique for topology optimization. Additionally, a new combination of genetic algorithms (GAs) with BESO is developed in order to stochastically search for the global optima. These enhanced BESO algorithms are applied to various optimization problems with the periodicity requirement as an extra constraint aiming at producing periodicity in the layout. For structures under static loading, the present thesis addresses minimization of the mean compliance and explores the applications of conventional stiffness optimization for periodic structures. Furthermore, this thesis develops a volume minimization formulation where the maximum deflection is constrained. For the design of structures subject to dynamic loading, this thesis develops two different approaches (hard-kill and soft-kill) to resolving the problem of localized or artificial modes. In the hard-kill (completely removing void elements) approach, extra control measures are taken in order to eliminate the localized modes in an explicit manner. In the soft-kill approach, a modified power low material model is presented to prevent the occurrence of artificial and localized modes. Periodic stress and strain fields cannot be assumed in structures under arbitrary loadings and boundaries at the macroscopic level. Therefore being different from material design, no natural base cell can be directly extracted from macrostructures. In this thesis, the concept of an imaginary representative unit cell (RUC) is presented. For situations when the structure cannot be discretized into equally-sized elements, the concept of sensitivity density is developed in order for mesh-independent robust solutions to be produced. The RUC and sensitivity density based approach is incorporated into various topology optimization problems to obtain absolute or scaled periodicities in structure layouts. The influence of this extra constraint on the final optima is investigated based on a large number of numerical experiments. The findings shown in this thesis have established appropriate techniques for designing and optimizing periodic structures. The work has provided a solid foundation for creating a practical design tool in the form of a user-friendly computer program suitable for the conceptual design of a wide range of structures.