Thesis advisor: John E. Ebel / Thesis advisor: Mark D. Behn / On January 12, 2015, a magnitude 3.1 mainshock occurred in Plainfield, Connecticut near Wauregan Tilcon Quarry, causing modified Mercalli II-IV intensities. Shortly after the event, a team from Weston Observatory installed portable seismographs in the epicentral area. The portable array detected hundreds of small earthquakes from around the quarry, with 26 events that were accurately located. P-wave first motion directions obtained from readings of the mainshock suggest a thrusting focal mechanism on a NNE-SSW trending fault. In this research, we collected 113 gravity measurements in the proximity of the quarry to verify and correct local fault geometry proposed by historic aeromagnetic and geologic mapping. Interpretations of the computed simple Bouguer anomaly are consistent with historic mapping, with a few exceptions. The gravity survey constrains a NNE-SSW trending fault that dips west underneath the quarry, inferred to be the Lake Char-Honey Hill Fault, and reduces ambiguity in the position of an undefined ESE-WNW trending fault, which appears to be on strike to intersect the quarry. A 3D boundary element program (3D~Def) is used to simulate quarry-induced stress changes on these faults in order to analyze the possibility of inducing seismicity through crustal unloading in the region. Quarry operations resulted in the removal of mass from the crust, which decreased lithostatic load. In a setting confined by a maximum horizontal compressional stress, decreasing the lithostatic load, orminimum principal stress (σ3), shifts a Mohr-Coulomb diagram toward failure. The boundary element model shows that following the excavation of materials at the quarry, positive Coulomb failure stress changes occur on the west dipping Lake Char-Honey Hill Fault. In agreement with past studies, our results suggest that quarrying operations can trigger seismic activity in specific settings with stress regime, fault orientations, and rock characteristics such as those that exist in the northeastern U.S. In order to mitigate the risk for future earthquakes related to quarrying operations, these factors must be considered before operations begin. / Thesis (MS) — Boston College, 2020. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Earth and Environmental Sciences.

Parametrizações mecanísticas descrevem fisicamente a interação das plantas com o ambiente baseando-se em processos fundamentais, como assimilação de líquida de CO2 e extração da água do solo pelas raízes, influenciados pelas condições do ambiente. O objetivo principal dessas rotinas é aumentar o entendimento do sistema estudado pela integração quantitativa e qualitativa do conhecimento em um modelo de simulação dinâmica do sistema real. Definindo estresse hídrico como a condição em que uma planta aumenta a resistência estomática em conseqüência do aumento da demanda atmosférica e/ou da redução da disponibilidade hídrica no solo, tem-se como hipótese que o déficit hídrico em plantas é causado por fatores ambientais relacionados com as interfaces solo-raiz e folha-atmosfera. O objetivo geral desse estudo é identificar quais são as variáveis do solo e da atmosfera determinantes e que devem ser consideradas na modelagem da deficiência hídrica em plantas. Os teores de água no solo e na atmosfera foram monitorados em condições de campo durante o desenvolvimento da cultura de feijão (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) entre Junho e Setembro de 2010, e correlacionados ao estresse hídrico caracterizado por medições de temperatura do dossel. As variáveis de interesse, especificamente o potencial matricial da água do solo, a temperatura e a umidade do ar e a temperatura do dossel foram medidas regularmente em intervalos de 30 minutos. A taxa de transpiração e a condutância estomática foram medidas ocasionalmente. Uma parcela foi irrigada durante todo o ciclo da cultura (tratamento totalmente irrigada), enquanto a outra foi submetida ao estresse hídrico na fase reprodutiva (tratamento com déficit de irrigação). A metodologia utilizada neste estudo deu suporte à hipótese inicial. Os principais fatores relacionados à interface solo-raiz são as propriedades hidráulicas do solo, especialmente a condutividade hidráulica e da densidade de comprimento radicular; na interface atmosfera de folhas, os fatores mais importantes são o déficit de pressão de vapor do ar atmosférico VPD. Estes fatores devem ser considerados de alguma forma na modelagem estresse hídrico em plantas. A detecção da ocorrência de estresse hídrico nas plantas no tratamento com déficit de irrigação foi feito por comparações entre o VPD e diferença de temperatura entre o dossel e o ar tdossel-ar e entre tdossel e a temperatura do bulbo úmido twb dos dois tratamentos hídricos. O início do estresse hídrico nas plantas com déficit de irrigação ocorreu em 05 de Agosto. As simulações com os modelos mecanísticos de extração da água do solo pelas raízes proposto por Jong van Lier et al. (2008) e de assimilação de CO2 proposto por Jacobs (1994) foram feitos com os dados de ambos os tratamentos. O modelo de extração foi sensível aos parâmetros hidráulicos do solo, especialmente a condutividade hidráulica e o comprimento radicular. A taxa de transpiração estimada pelo modelo de Jacobs (1994) mostrou-se dependente da temperatura do dossel utilizada para calcular o déficit de umidade específica folha-ar Ds e a condutância do mesofilo, do próprio Ds (dependente também da temperatura do ar), e do índice de área foliar. / Mechanistic parameterizations describe physically the interactions between crop and environment based on primary processes such as CO2 net assimilation and root water uptake from soil and how they are influenced by environmental conditions. An important purpose of developing mechanistic routines is to improve the understanding of a system by qualitative and quantitative integration of knowledge in a dynamic simulation model of a real system. Defining water stress as the condition in which stomatal resistance of plant leaves increases as a consequence of enhanced atmospheric demand and/or reduced soil water availability, the investigated hypothesis was that plant water stress is caused by environmental factors related to both the soilroot and leave-atmosphere interfaces. The main objective of the research was to identify which atmosphere and soil parameters are determinant and must be considered in crop water stress modeling. Soil and atmosphere water content were monitored under field conditions during the growing season of a Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) crop between June and September, 2010, and correlated to plant water stress characterized by measurements of canopy temperature. The variables of interest, specifically the soil water pressure head, air temperature and humidity and canopy temperature were measured regularly at short intervals. Transpiration rate and stomatal conductance were measured occasionally. One plot was irrigated during the whole crop cycle (fully irrigated treatment), while the other one was subject to water stress in the reproductive phase (deficit irrigated treatment). The methodology used in this study supported the initial hypothesis. The main soil-root interface related factors that determine water stress are the soil hydraulic properties, especially the hydraulic conductivity, and the root length density; at the leaf atmosphere interface, the most important factor is the vapor pressure deficit of atmospheric air VPD. These factors must be somehow considered in crop water stress modeling. The detection of water stress occurrence in the deficit irrigated plants was made by comparisons between VPD and temperature difference between canopy and air tcanopy-air and between tcanopy and wet bulb temperature twb of the two irrigation treatments. The onset of water stress in deficit irrigated plants occurred on August 5. The simulations with the mechanistic models of soil water root uptake proposed by Jong van Lier et al. (2008) and of CO2 assimilation by Jacobs (1994) were made with data from the two treatments. The soil water uptake model was sensitive to soil hydraulic parameters, especially hydraulic conductivity and root length density. The transpiration rate estimated by the Jacobs (1994) model showed to be dependent on the canopy temperature used to calculate the specific humidity deficit between leaves and air Ds and the mesophyll conductance, on Ds (on its turn also dependent on air temperature), and on the leaf area index

Parametrizações mecanísticas descrevem fisicamente a interação das plantas com o ambiente baseando-se em processos fundamentais, como assimilação de líquida de CO2 e extração da água do solo pelas raízes, influenciados pelas condições do ambiente. O objetivo principal dessas rotinas é aumentar o entendimento do sistema estudado pela integração quantitativa e qualitativa do conhecimento em um modelo de simulação dinâmica do sistema real. Definindo estresse hídrico como a condição em que uma planta aumenta a resistência estomática em conseqüência do aumento da demanda atmosférica e/ou da redução da disponibilidade hídrica no solo, tem-se como hipótese que o déficit hídrico em plantas é causado por fatores ambientais relacionados com as interfaces solo-raiz e folha-atmosfera. O objetivo geral desse estudo é identificar quais são as variáveis do solo e da atmosfera determinantes e que devem ser consideradas na modelagem da deficiência hídrica em plantas. Os teores de água no solo e na atmosfera foram monitorados em condições de campo durante o desenvolvimento da cultura de feijão (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) entre Junho e Setembro de 2010, e correlacionados ao estresse hídrico caracterizado por medições de temperatura do dossel. As variáveis de interesse, especificamente o potencial matricial da água do solo, a temperatura e a umidade do ar e a temperatura do dossel foram medidas regularmente em intervalos de 30 minutos. A taxa de transpiração e a condutância estomática foram medidas ocasionalmente. Uma parcela foi irrigada durante todo o ciclo da cultura (tratamento totalmente irrigada), enquanto a outra foi submetida ao estresse hídrico na fase reprodutiva (tratamento com déficit de irrigação). A metodologia utilizada neste estudo deu suporte à hipótese inicial. Os principais fatores relacionados à interface solo-raiz são as propriedades hidráulicas do solo, especialmente a condutividade hidráulica e da densidade de comprimento radicular; na interface atmosfera de folhas, os fatores mais importantes são o déficit de pressão de vapor do ar atmosférico VPD. Estes fatores devem ser considerados de alguma forma na modelagem estresse hídrico em plantas. A detecção da ocorrência de estresse hídrico nas plantas no tratamento com déficit de irrigação foi feito por comparações entre o VPD e diferença de temperatura entre o dossel e o ar tdossel-ar e entre tdossel e a temperatura do bulbo úmido twb dos dois tratamentos hídricos. O início do estresse hídrico nas plantas com déficit de irrigação ocorreu em 05 de Agosto. As simulações com os modelos mecanísticos de extração da água do solo pelas raízes proposto por Jong van Lier et al. (2008) e de assimilação de CO2 proposto por Jacobs (1994) foram feitos com os dados de ambos os tratamentos. O modelo de extração foi sensível aos parâmetros hidráulicos do solo, especialmente a condutividade hidráulica e o comprimento radicular. A taxa de transpiração estimada pelo modelo de Jacobs (1994) mostrou-se dependente da temperatura do dossel utilizada para calcular o déficit de umidade específica folha-ar Ds e a condutância do mesofilo, do próprio Ds (dependente também da temperatura do ar), e do índice de área foliar. / Mechanistic parameterizations describe physically the interactions between crop and environment based on primary processes such as CO2 net assimilation and root water uptake from soil and how they are influenced by environmental conditions. An important purpose of developing mechanistic routines is to improve the understanding of a system by qualitative and quantitative integration of knowledge in a dynamic simulation model of a real system. Defining water stress as the condition in which stomatal resistance of plant leaves increases as a consequence of enhanced atmospheric demand and/or reduced soil water availability, the investigated hypothesis was that plant water stress is caused by environmental factors related to both the soilroot and leave-atmosphere interfaces. The main objective of the research was to identify which atmosphere and soil parameters are determinant and must be considered in crop water stress modeling. Soil and atmosphere water content were monitored under field conditions during the growing season of a Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) crop between June and September, 2010, and correlated to plant water stress characterized by measurements of canopy temperature. The variables of interest, specifically the soil water pressure head, air temperature and humidity and canopy temperature were measured regularly at short intervals. Transpiration rate and stomatal conductance were measured occasionally. One plot was irrigated during the whole crop cycle (fully irrigated treatment), while the other one was subject to water stress in the reproductive phase (deficit irrigated treatment). The methodology used in this study supported the initial hypothesis. The main soil-root interface related factors that determine water stress are the soil hydraulic properties, especially the hydraulic conductivity, and the root length density; at the leaf atmosphere interface, the most important factor is the vapor pressure deficit of atmospheric air VPD. These factors must be somehow considered in crop water stress modeling. The detection of water stress occurrence in the deficit irrigated plants was made by comparisons between VPD and temperature difference between canopy and air tcanopy-air and between tcanopy and wet bulb temperature twb of the two irrigation treatments. The onset of water stress in deficit irrigated plants occurred on August 5. The simulations with the mechanistic models of soil water root uptake proposed by Jong van Lier et al. (2008) and of CO2 assimilation by Jacobs (1994) were made with data from the two treatments. The soil water uptake model was sensitive to soil hydraulic parameters, especially hydraulic conductivity and root length density. The transpiration rate estimated by the Jacobs (1994) model showed to be dependent on the canopy temperature used to calculate the specific humidity deficit between leaves and air Ds and the mesophyll conductance, on Ds (on its turn also dependent on air temperature), and on the leaf area index

Les méthodes hybrides combinant les méthodes de 4D Variationnelle et le filtre de Kalman d'ensemble fournissent un cadre flexible. Dans ce cadre, les avantages potentiels par rapport à chaque méthode (e.g. la matrice de covariances d'erreur d'ébauche dépendant d'écoulement, la capacité d'obtenir explicitement la matrice de covariances d'erreur d'analyse, la procédure de minimisation itérative et l'assimilation simultanée de toutes les observations dans un intervalle de temps etc.) peuvent être conservés. Dans cette thèse, un système d'ensemblist-4DVar renforcé a été proposé et a été analysé en détail dans le cas du modèle de 2D shallow-water. Nous avons proposé un nouveau schéma de boucle imbriquée dans laquelle la matrice de covariances d'erreur d'ébauche est mis à jour pour chaque boucle externe. Nous avons aussi élaboré différents schémas de mise à jour ensemble avec deux stratégies de localisation et exploité les liens entre la matrice de covariances d'erreur d'analyse et la matrice hessienne de la fonction coût. Toutes ces variantes ont été testées avec les données réelles de l'image capturés par Kinect et les données d'image associés à un modèle de Surface Quasi-Géostrophique, respectivement. A la deuxième étape, un système d'estimation des paramètres à partir de notre méthode ensemblist-4DVar proposée est conçu. Cette formulation nous permet de estimer des paramètres d'une incertitude de stress tenseur. Et cette incertitude de stress tenseur est dérivé d'un point de vue de phénomène d'écoulement entraînée par un processus stochastique. Enfin, un premier effort est fait pour l'assimilation des données d'image à haute résolution avec le modèle dynamique sur une grille plus grossière. / The hybrid methods combing the 4D variational method and the ensemble Kalman filter provide a flexible framework. In such framework the potential advantages with respect to each method (e.g. the flow-dependent background error covariance, the ability to explicitly get the analysis error covariance matrix, the iterative minimization procedure and the simultaneously assimilation of all observations with in a time span etc.) can be retained. In this thesis, an enhanced ensemble-based 4DVar scheme is proposed and has been analyzed in detail in the case of the 2D shallow water model. Several variations related to this method are introduced and tested. We proposed a new nested loop scheme in which the background error covariance matrix is updated for each outer loop. We also devised different ensemble update schemes together with two localization schemes. And we exploited the links between the analysis error covariance matrix and the inverse Hessian of our 4D cost function. All these variants have been tested with the real Kinect-captured image data and synthetic image data associated with a SQG (Surface Quasi-Geostrophic) model, respectively. At the second stage, a parameter estimation scheme of our proposed ensemble-based variational method is devised. Such formulation allows the parameter estimation of an uncertainty subgrid stress tensor. And this uncertainty subgrid stress tensor is derived from a perspective of flow phenomenon driven by a stochastic process. Finally, a first effort is made to assimilation high-resolution image data with the dynamical model running on a much coarser grid.