No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

Excerpt: The recent study by Sahlas et al1 in the Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases concluded that “the estimation of a patient's weight in the acute setting can lead to overcalculation of the tissue plasminogen activator dose, which is associated with poorer functional outcomes.” However, this conclusion is not well supported by their study1 because the most severe ischemic stroke cases were the ones that were most likely not weighed, and this severity could have led to the increased mortality that was found2 and the majority of unweighed patients were actually given an underdose that was associated with better discharge outcomes, as explained below.

Satellites have become absolute necessity in the growing modern space technology. At present, launch pads are the only means for launching of satellites or any other space vehicles. Due to the large magnitude of current and the associated rate of rise, a lightning strike to launch pads can be quite disastrous. Satellite launch complex forms typically the tallest object in that region. This makes them the more vulnerable to cloud-to-ground lightning. In addition, most of the launch pads are situated near the coastal area, where the isokeraunic levels are quite high. In view of these, almost all the satellite launch pads are provided with suitable Lightning Protection Systems (LPS). The LPS is basically intended for protecting against a direct lightning hit. The present work is related with the LPS to Indian satellite launch pads, Pad-I and Pad-II. The protection system for Pad-I consists of three 120 m tall towers placed approximately at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of 180 m. The same for Pad-II consist of 120 m tall towers placed at vertices of rectangle of size 90 m x 105 m. Towers are interconnected by 6 shield wires at the top. A mast of 10m length forms the top of the tower. Significant work on the analysis of interception efficacy of these protection systems has been reported in the literature. The lightning surge response of these systems have also been analysed and reported. The interception efficacy of these LPS in field can be ascertained by pertinent measurements. Measuring the lightning current on LPS seems to be one of the most suitable choices for this purpose. It would also greatly facilitate collection of local lightning current statistics, data on which is almost absent. Several considerations suggest that the tower bases form ideal place for such measurement. However, such lightning current records would involve mainly the current resulting from stroke interception, as well as, induced current due to strokes nearby. Literature on categorisation of measured currents to the type of stroke and correlation of measured currents to the incident stroke currents is rather limited. This is especially true for interconnected protection system of the type dealt in the present work. Considering these the present work is taken up and its scope is defined as: (i) Evolve a suitable model for study of current distribution in LPS due to Lightning and using the same deduce the current due to stroke interception and that due to stroke nearby. (ii) For the purpose of categorization identify the salient characteristics of current due to the intercepted strokes and that due to bypass/nearby strokes (iii) For the intercepted strokes, develop a processor for estimating the injected stroke current from the measured tower base currents. Lightning event, apart from other associated physical phenomena, is strongly governed by electromagnetic fields. Any method employed for the analysis, either theoretical or experimental, should satisfy the governing electromagnetic equations. As experimentation on actual system, as well as, their laboratory simulation is nearly impossible, theoretical modelling approach is selected. Modelling involves modelling of the channel along with its excitation, modelling of the LPS and modelling of the ground. Channel, following the literature, is represented as a loaded conductor with a lumped current source at the junction point. Such models have quite successfully predicted the electromagnetic fields and current in other places on the down conductor. For the LPS, some simplifications on the geometry are very essential. Tower lattice elements of dimensions much smaller than the wavelength of highest dominant frequency component of lightning current spectrum are neglected. Suitable modification is made for the tower top involving a plate and interconnection of several short members. For the close range within 200 – 400 m, even for the induced currents, the influence of ground in the literature has been reported to be small. Also, there is an extensive grounding network in these systems. In view of the same, a perfectly conducting ground along with suitable ground termination impedance is considered. Only the numerical solution of the problem is feasible and for the same, following the literature, NEC-2 is employed. All the guidelines of NEC are respected in the discretisation. Geometric mean radius is employed for modelling the complex tower elements. Fourier Transform Techniques are employed for time domain conversion of the computed frequency domain quantities. Occasionally, numerical inversion error of magnitude less than 5% is encountered. For the validation of the numerical modelling for both direct stroke and that nearby, time domain experimentation on electromagnetically reduced scale models (35:1) is employed. As the channel electrical and geometrical parameters are stochastic in nature, it is necessary to ensure that the deduction made using the model is practically relevant. For this, some parametric studies are conducted. The influence of channel length and inclination, stroke current velocity etc. has been shown to be insignificant for the case of intercepted strokes. Simulations are carried out for the stroke intercepted (i.e. direct strikes) by the LPS. The characteristics of the tower base currents are investigated. The base currents indicate a dispersive propagation along the towers and further a frequency dependent current division at the tower-shield wire junctions. Base currents contain superimposed oscillations, which basically originate from various junctions of the system. The magnitude of the oscillations is obviously dependent on the rise time of the incident currents. The tower base currents settle within about 10 -15 µs, which is shorter than that for isolated tower. Further, the full-frequency model could be limited to this time period. The corresponding current transfer functions are deduced. For the stroke interception by shield wires, based on the earlier work, only stroke to midspan is found to be relevant and hence it is considered. The nature of tower base currents for a stroke to midspan of the shield wires seem to be similar. However there are some distinct features, which are helpful in identifying the stroke location on the LPS. From the time correlated tower base currents, a suitable methodology for identifying the stroke interception location on LPS is developed. Next, simulations for induced current due to a bypass stroke, as well as, stroke to ground outside the LPS, however, within 1 km radius are taken up. In fact, it is estimated that latter is nearly 5 – 13 times higher than the strokes collected by LPS, indicating it as the most probable event. The objective here is characterization, rather than correlation. In this study, the influence of charge induced on the LPS by the descending leader is neglected and the upward leader activity is approximately considered. To the best of author’s knowledge, studies on such induced currents in down conductors are very scarce. Considering this and noting that the number of parameters is quite large, first the basic study is taken up on simple cylindrical down conductors. Many important and interesting deductions are made. The nature of the induced current is highly dependent on the rate of rise as well as the velocity of propagation of the stroke current. The magnitude and to some extent, the wave shape of the induced current is found to depend on the average as well as maximum di/dt of the stroke current. For a given wave shape, the magnitude of the induced current increases with rate of rise of the wave front; however, saturating trend will onset after some point. The height of the down conductor mainly governs the frequency of the oscillatory component of the induced current. The dependency of the induced current on the radius of the down conductor seems to be logarithmic (which is in accordance with the antenna theory). Based on these results, the parameters for the corresponding study on LPS under consideration, is chosen. The results of the investigation on the induced currents in LPS show that they have quite distinct waveform. They are basically bipolar and oscillatory in nature, with relatively short duration. These unique features facilitate clear distinction of the induced currents from that due to stroke interception. Basic characteristics are reasonably insensitive to the separation distance of the protection system and the channel, current propagation velocity along the channel, channel inclination and shape of the current front. The salient features of the induced current due to a bypass stroke are also enumerated. • The noise, if any, in the measured current can be addressed only after acquiring sufficient data. Based on the above, the following procedure is suggested for the stroke classification and estimation. • By employing the distinct features of the resulting tower base currents, analyze the measured tower base currents and classify the strokes into the intercepted stroke or stroke to ground. • For the latter case, using the salient features of the bypass strokes, further classify the strokes to bypass strokes and stroke to ground outside the protected volume. • For the intercepted strokes, using the relative strengths and wave shapes, identify the interception point to either tower top or the midspan of the shield wires. • Then by using the corresponding transfer functions and Fourier Transform techniques, compute the injected stroke current. • Using the above, other tower base currents are computed and compared with the measured currents. This gives quantification for the accuracy of the method. In summary the present work has made some original contribution to the classification and estimation of stroke currents measured on the interconnected LPS.

This study compares the predictive ability of newly introduced strokes gained measures on PGA Tour earnings performance with that of more conventional golf statistics. It is found that the strokes gained measures explain slightly more of the variability in the distribution of earnings. Strokes gained on the approach shot are determined to be the most valuable relative to the other strokes gained metrics.

Direct numerical simulations (DNS) of an initially quiescent coupled air-water interface driven by an air flow with free stream speed of 5 m/s have been conducted. The DNS solves a scalar advection-diffusion equation for dissolved gas (or scalar) concentration in order to determine the impact of the water-side turbulence on scalar (mass) transfer from the air side to the water side and subsequent vertical transport in the water column. Two simulations are compared: one with a freely deforming interface and a second one with a flat interface. In the first simulation, the deforming interface evolves in the form of gravity-capillary waves generating aqueous Langmuir turbulence characterized by small-scale (centimeter-scale) Langmuir cells (LCs). The second simulation is characterized by pure shear-driven turbulence in the absence of LCs as the interface is intentionally held flat. It is concluded that the Langmuir turbulence serves to enhance vertical transport of the scalar in the water side and in the process increases scalar transfer efficiency relative to the shear-dominated turbulence in the flat interface case. Furthermore, transition to Langmuir turbulence was observed to be accompanied by a spike in scalar flux via molecular diffusion across the interface characterized by an order of magnitude increase. Such episodic flux increases, if linked to gusts and overall unsteadiness in the wind field, are expected to be an important contributor in determining the long-term average of the air-sea gas fluxes. The effectiveness of popular transfer velocity models, namely the small eddy model and the surface divergence model, in predicting this spike is evaluated via the DNS. In addition to LCs, DNS reveals that the water side turbulence is characterized by smaller, shear-driven turbulent eddies at the surface embedded within the LCs. LES with momentum equation augmented with the well-known Craik-Leibovich (C-L) vortex force is used to understand the roles of the wave and shear-driven LCs (i.e. the Langmuir turbulence) and the smaller shear-driven eddies (i.e. the shear turbulence) in determining molecular diffusive scalar flux from the air side to the water side and vertical scalar transport beneath. The C-L force consists of the cross product between the Stokes drift velocity (induced by the interfacial waves) and the flow vorticity. It is observed that Stokes drift shear intensifies the smaller eddies (with respect to purely wind-driven flow, i.e. without wave effects) leading to enhanced diffusive scalar flux at the air-water interface. LC leads to increased vertical scalar transport at depths below the interface and thus greater scalar transfer efficiency.

Στόχος της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η αξιολόγηση της προστασίας του δικτύου Υψηλής Τάσης της Αρχής Ηλεκτρισμού Κύπρου, ΑΗΚ, ενάντια στα πλήγματα κεραυνών. Γίνεται μια παρουσίαση των διαφόρων τύπων κεραυνικών υπερτάσεων που μπορούν να εμφανιστούν σε ένα εναέριο δίκτυο μεταφοράς ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας, των σφαλμάτων που αυτά μπορεί να προκαλέσουν και εξετάζεται η αντοχή του δικτύου έναντι αυτών. Αρχικά γίνεται μία ιστορική αναδρομή της πορείας της ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας στην Κύπρο και του κεντρικού φορέα διαχείρισης του ηλεκτρικού ρεύματος στο νησί, της ΑΗΚ. Εν συνεχεία παρατίθενται λεπτομερώς τα στοιχεία που συνθέτουν σήμερα το δίκτυο της Αρχής Ηλεκτρισμού Κύπρου, το σύστημα παραγωγής, μεταφοράς και διανομής της ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Επίσης γίνεται σύντομη αναφορά στα σημαντικότερα στοιχεία που χαρακτηρίζουν το κλίμα της Κύπρου με ιδιαίτερη αναφορά στις καταιγίδες. Στο επόμενο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται οι καταπονήσεις τις οποίες υφίστανται οι γραμμές μεταφοράς ενός δικτύου ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας με ιδιαίτερη έμφαση στις Ατμοσφαιρικές Υπερτάσεις. Γίνεται μια ενδελεχής παρουσίαση της βασικής αιτίας πρόκλησης αυτών, του Κεραυνού, και παρουσιάζονται αναλυτικά οι μηχανισμοί δημιουργίας υπερτάσεων στις γραμμές από κεραυνούς. Το επόμενο κεφάλαιο πραγματεύεται την παρουσίαση και επεξεργασία του συνόλου των σφαλμάτων που εμφανίστηκαν στο δίκτυο της ΑΗΚ σε μια περίοδο επτά ετών. Διαχωρίζονται σε κατηγορίες, παρουσιάζονται οι διάφορες αιτίες σφαλμάτων και αποτιμάται η βαρύτητα που έχουν τα πλήγματα από κεραυνούς στη πρόκληση σφαλμάτων στο δίκτυο. Τέλος, επιχειρείται να εκτιμηθεί ο πιθανός αριθμός σφαλμάτων από ανάστροφα βραχυκυκλώματα του δικτύου Υψηλής Τάσης της ΑΗΚ. Για το σκοπό αυτό, παρατίθενται δύο μεθόδοι, η αρχική και βελτιωμένη μέθοδος ANACOM. Εν κατακλείδι, γίνεται παρουσίαση των αποτελεσμάτων μας και διατυπώνονται τα συμπεράσματα μας αναφορικά με τα πραγματικά και αναμενόμενα σφάλματα στο δίκτυο Υ.Τ. της ΑΗΚ. / The aim of this degree paper is to evaluate the level of protection of the H.V. network of the EAC against lightning strokes. The various types of lightning overvoltages which could appear in an overhead electrical network are presented, as well as the faults that these could cause and finally the endurance of the network against them. Initially, a historical reference of electricity in Cyprus and of the EAC, which is the sole authority of electricity on the island, is given. Next, all the elements concerning the network of the EAC are presented in detail, namely the production, transmission and distribution systems. There is also a brief reference to the climatic conditions prevailing in Cyprus with a special reference to storms. In the next chapter the stresses of the lines are referred to with a special reference to the atmospheric overvoltages. A thorough presentation of the main cause of these overvoltage stresses is made, i.e. lightning, and their creation mechanisms is presented in detail. The following chapter deals with the presentation and processing of the total number of faults which appeared in EAC’s network over a period of seven years. These are then divided into categories, their causes are listed and an evaluation is made concerning the role of lightning strokes in the creation of faults in the network. Finally, an effort is made to estimate the number of faults caused by back-flashovers in the H.V. network of the EAC. In order to do this, two methods are presented, the basic and improved ANACOM methods. In the end the results are given and our conclusions are presented relating to the real and expected faults due to lightning strokes in the EAC’s H.V. network.

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία ϑα µελετηθεί η συµπεριφορά των γραµµών διανομής μέσης τάσης, όταν αυτές πλήττονται από κεραυνούς, είτε άµεσα είτε έµµεσα. Οι κεραυνοί είναι ένα ϕυσικό ϕαινόµενο µε επικίνδυνες συνέπειες για την ασϕάλεια των ανθρώπων, κτιρίων και ηλεκτρικών εγκαταστάσεων. Οι γραµµές του ηλεκτρικού δικτύου (είτε υψηλής, είτε μέσης, είτε χαµηλής τάσης) είναι ευάλωτες σε πλήγµατα κεραυνών. Όταν ένας κεραυνός πλήξει άµεσα µια γραµµή ή το γειτονικό της έδαφος, τότε ϑα εµφανισϑούν σϕάλµατα στο ηλεκτρικό δίκτυο υπό µορφή επικίνδυνων υπερτάσεων. Οι υπερτάσεις αυτές σε πολλές περιπτώσεις µπορεί να υπερβαίνουν την κρουστική τάση αντοχής της µόνωσης του δικτύου, µε αποτέλεσµα, αν δεν υπάρχουν διατάξεις προστασίας, να διασπαστεί το διάκενο, προκαλώντας ανεπανόρθωτη ζηµιά στον εξοπλισµό µας. Η µελέτη για τη συµπεριφορά των εναέριων γραµµών διανοµής εµπεριέχει αρκετές προσεγγίσεις. Μερικές από αυτές αφορούν κάποιες βασικές παραµέτρους, όπως η πυκνότητα των κεραυνών στο έδαφος (GFD) και το πλήθος των άµεσων πληγµάτων στη γραµµή. Προκειµένου να εξάγουµε ασϕαλή δεδοµένα, συµβουλευόµαστε τους αντίστοιχους µετεωρολογικούς πίνακες-χάρτες ( π.χ. ισοκεραυνικοί χάρτες). Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας γίνεται παρουσίαση της µορφής των συστηµάτων ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας µε ιδιαίτερη έµφαση στο σύστηµα διανοµής. Παρουσιάζεται η δοµή του συστήµατος διανοµής, τα επιµέρους τμήματα και εξαρτήµατα από τα οποία αποτελείται, καθώς και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους. Στο τέλος του κεφαλαίου παρουσιάζονται δεδοµένα και στατιστικά του ελληνικού συστήµατος διανοµής. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο, γίνεται µια σύντοµη παρουσίαση των σϕαλµάτων και υπερτάσεων που παρουσιάζονται στο σύστηµα διανοµής, καθώς και των µέσων προστασίας που χρησιµοποιούµε προκειµένου να εξασϕαλίσουµε την αδιάλειπτη λειτουργία και ακεραιότητα του συστήµατος µας. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται το ϕυσικό ϕαινόµενο του κεραυνού, καθώς και τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά αυτού. Εξετάζονται τα είδη των κεραυνών και η εξοµοίωσή τους σε εργαστηριακές συνθήκες µέσω κρουστικής τάσης για δοκιµές της αντοχής των µονώσεων. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφεται η οδηγία της IEEE για τη συµπεριφορά των εναέριων γραµµών διανοµής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας έναντι κεραυνών. Σκοπός του κεφαλαίου είναι η παρουσίαση εναλλακτικών λύσεων για τη µείωση των βραχυκυκλωµάτων που προκαλούνται από κεραυνό στις εναέριες γραµµές. Συγκεκριµένα, προσδιορίζεται η συµπεριφορά των εναέριων γραµµών διανοµής σε περίπτωση πτώσης κεραυνού (πλήγµατα κεραυνών και βραχυκυκλώµατα από επαγόµενη τάση), το επίπεδο µόνωσης των γραµµών διανοµής, η προστασία των γραµµών διανοµής µε προστατευτικό αγωγό, καθώς και η προστασία των γραµµών με αλεξικέραυνα. Στο πέµπτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας, γίνεται επεξεργασία και μελέτη των καταγρεγραμένων σφαλµάτων και βλαβών λόγω πτώσεως κεραυνών στο δίκτυο μέσης τάσης, σε µετασχηµατιστές και σε γραµµές διανοµής Μ.Τ., κατά την διάρκεια της επταετίας 2005-2011 στο νομό Αιτωλοακαρνανίας. Υπολογίζεται αναλυτικά ο ϑεωρητικός αριθµός σφαλµάτων σύµϕωνα µε την οδηγία της IEEE, και στη συνέχεια γίνεται σύγκριση µε τα πραγµατικά σφάλµατα που έχουν καταγραφεί από τις υπηρεσίες της ∆.Ε.Η. στην πόλη του Αγρινίου, µε σκοπό την εξαγωγή χρήσιμων συµπερασµάτων. Γενικά, προκύπτουν αποκλίσεις της θεωρητικής εκτίμησης από τα πραγματικά δεδομένα των καταγραφών, γεγονός που οφείλεται τόσο στον προσεγγιστικό χαρακτήρα της θεωρητικής εκτίμησης, όσο και σε πιθανά λάθη, εξ’ αιτίας της εμπλοκής του ανθρώπινου παράγοντα, στην καταγραφή των πραγματικών σφαλμάτων. Παρ’ όλα αυτά, η απόκλιση αυτή είναι θετική (τα θεωρητικά υπολογισμένα σφάλματα είναι, δηλαδή, περισσότερα από τα καταγεγραμμένα), γεγονός που δεν μειώνει την αξία της εκτίμησης που μας προσφέρει το χρησιμοποιούμενο μοντέλο. / This thesis studies the behavior of medium voltage distribution lines, after being stroked by lightning – directly or indirectly. The lightning is a natural phenomenon, with dangerous impacts on human safety, buildings or electricity premises. The electricity network lines (either of high, medium or low voltage) are prone to lightning strikes. When a lightning strikes a distribution line (or the ground nearby), then faults occur at the distribution network, in the form of dangerous overvoltage. Such overvoltage may in many cases exceed the shock impulse of network’s insulation resistance. As a result, in case no safety arrangements exist, this could lead to gap breakdown, causing irreparable damage to our equipment. The study of the behavior of air distribution lines encompasses several approaches: Some of them have to do with basic parameters, such as the ground flash density (GFD) and the number of direct lightning strikes on distribution lines. In order to export safe data, we use the corresponding meteorological tables/maps (e.g. lightning maps). The first section of this paper contains the presentation of the form of electric power systems, with special emphasis on the distribution system. It is a presentation of the distribution system structure, its individual parts and devices, as well as their features. Data and statistics of the Greek distribution system are presented at the end of the section. The second section is a brief presentation of the faults and overvoltage occurring at the distribution system, as well as of the protection measures we use, in order to ensure uninterrupted operation and integrity, regarding to our system. The third section presents the natural phenomenon of the lightning and its main features. The types of lightning are reviewed here, and its simulation under laboratory conditions through shock impulses, in order to test the insulation resistance. The fourth section is a reference to the directive of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), regarding to the behavior of air distribution lines in case of lightning. The purpose here is to present alternative solutions for the decrease of short-circuit occurrences caused by lightning on overhead lines. Specifically, the behavior of the overhead distribution lines in the event of lightning strikes is determined (meaning both direct lightning strikes and short-circuits arising from the induced voltage), as well as the level of insulation of distribution lines, the protection of distribution lines by employing a protective tube, and the protection of the lines using lightning rods. The fifth section of this paper is an elaboration of the faults recorded and the damages caused due to lightning strikes on the medium voltage network, as well as on transformers and on M.V. distribution lines over a 7-year period (from 2005 to 2011) about the Aitoloakarnania state. The theoretical number of faults will be calculated in detail, based on the IEEE directive and then these faults will be compared to the real faults provided by D.E.I. in the city of Agrinio (Greek Public Power Corporation), in order to reach our conclusions. In conclusion, a deviation between the theoretical number and the real number of faults is noted: this observation has to do with the approximate character of the model we used, probably as well as the involvement of the human factor in recording the real number of thoughts. However, this deviation is “positive” (meaning that the number of theoretical faults is bigger than the number of the real ones), a fact that does not reduce the value of the number suggested by using the theoretical model provided

Σκοπός της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της λειτουργίας των καθοδικών αλεξικεραύνων κατά την προστασία γραμμών μεταφοράς υψηλής τάσης. Ειδικότερα, λόγω της ιδιαίτερης φύσης των κεραυνών και των πληγμάτων που αυτοί επιφέρουν, γίνεται μελέτη μοντέλων που έχουν προταθεί για την προσομείωση των αλεξικεραύνων κατά την λειτουργία τους. / The purpose of this paper is to study the function of surge arresters protecting high voltage transmission lines. Specifically, given the particular nature of lightning strikes and the blows they bring, models that have been proposed for the simulation of surge arrestes during operation are being studied.