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Ce travail de thèse ce focalise sur la croissance et la caractérisation de Nanofils (NFs) et de Microfils (µFs) de GaN. L'élaboration de telles structures est obtenue par épitaxie en phase vapeur d'organométalliques à partir de deux stratégies de croissances: l'une dite auto-organisée, réalisée sur substrat saphir, l'autre appelée sélective ou localisée, obtenue sur template GaN de polarité Ga. Quelque soit la stratégie employée, nous montrons que la croissance de structures verticales suivant l'axe c requièrent l'utilisation d'un flux de NH3 et d'un rapport V/III faible, lorsque nous les comparons avec les valeurs utilisées pour la réalisation de couches planaires de GaN. Les paramètres et les étapes de croissances ayant une influence sur le rapport d'aspect (hauteur/diamètre) sont étudiées et mises en évidence pour chacune des stratégies employées. Par ailleurs, les mécanismes de croissance ainsi que les propriétés structurales et optiques de ces objets sont caractérisés par MEB, MET, CL et µPL. En particulier, les expériences réalisées sur les µFs auto-organisés permettent d'observer et d'expliquer l'origine de la double polarité, de mettre en lueur la différence d'incorporation de dopants/d'impuretés entre les domaines Ga et N, d'identifier la présence de deux sections de propriétés électriques et optiques différentes, et de révéler la présence de deux types de résonances optiques: des Modes de galerie et des Modes de Fabry-Perot. D'autres part, nous étudions la courbure des dislocations vers les surfaces libres des NFs localisés et µFs auto-organisés, et pointons la présence de fautes d'empilement basales dans des régions de faibles dimensions. / This work focus on growth and characterization of GaN Nanowires (NWs) and Microwires (µWs). Such structures are obtained by Metal Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy with two growth strategies: one called self-organized which is realized on sapphire, and the other named selective area growth which is obtained on a GaN Ga-polar template. Whatever the growth strategies employed, vertical growth of structures along the c axis requires the use of a low NH3 flux and V/III ratio, when they are compared with values used for planar growth of GaN. The influence of growth parameters and growth steps on aspect ratio (height/diameter) are studied and highlight for each growth strategies employed. Beside, growth mechanisms and structural and optical properties of such objects are characterized by SEM, TEM, CL and µPL. In particular, experiments realized on self-organized µWs enable us to observe and explain the origin of the double polarity, to highlight the dopants/impurities incorporation difference between Ga and N-domain, to identify two sections with differences in electrical and optical properties, and to reveal the presence of two types of optical resonances, identify as Whispering Gallery Modes and Fabry-Perot Modes. On the other hand, we study the bending of dislocations on free walls of localized NWs and self-organized µWs, and pointed out the presence of basal stacking faults in regions of small dimensions.

Nesse trabalho investigamos a influência de defeitos nas propriedades estruturais, eletrônicas e mecânicas de nanotubos de parede simples (SWCNT), em feixes de nanotubos e em nanotubos de parede múltipla (MWCNT). Todos os nossos resultados foram obtidos utilizando uma teoria de primeiros princípios de energia total, a Teoria do Funcional da Densidade (DFT). Investigamos as propriedades estruturais para quatro defeitos em nanotubos de parede simples: Stone-Wales (5577), monovacância e duas divacâncias (585) e (555777), e o comportamento da energia de formação em função do diâmetro para as quatro estruturas. Observamos que as divacâncias apresentam uma inversão de estabilidade, quando comparamos as energias de formação desses defeitos em nanotubos com o grafeno e, alám disso, as divacâncias são os defeitos mais importantes na modificação das propriedades de transporte em SWCNT. Estudamos a estabilidade e as propriedades de transporte desses sistemas e observamos que o defeito 585 é menos estável em grafeno devido à quebra de duas ligações dos pentágonos do defeito. O defeito 555777 torna-se mais estável do que o 585 para os CNT armchair (zigzag) com o diâmetro 40 °A (53 °A). Investigamos as propriedades estruturais e mecânicas de feixes de nanotubos com os defeitos do tipo vacância-vacância, V¹2 e V²2 . Devido à estrutura geomátrica dos nanotubos, esses defeitos possuem energia de formação menores do que em grafeno. Apresentaremos como as conexões modificam o módulo de cisalhamento dos nanotubos e também mostraremos o processo de formação das conexões através do método Nudged Elastic Band- NEB. Por fim, foram investigadas as propriedades estruturais e mecânicas de nanotubos de parede dupla (DWCNT) com defeitos do tipo vacância-interstício (defeito de Wigner) e os defeitos do tipo vacância-vacância (defeitos V¹2 e V ²2 ). Mostraremos que neste sistema existem várias possibilidades para o defeito de Wigner. Observamos que o defeito de Wigner mais estável é o que possui um pentágono no tubo interno e que os átomos do pentágono, formados pelo defeito, participam da conexão (Wigner-I-a). Investigamos a estabilidade desses defeitos em duas concentrações (½d = 0.082 [def.°A1] e ½d = 0.164 [def.°A1]). As propriedades mecânicas desses sistemas foram investigadas e constatamos uma melhora do módulo de cisalhamento por um fator de até 15, quando comparado com o sistema sem defeito e, quando dobramos a concentração de defeitos, o módulo de cisalhamento aumenta por um fator de 3 em relação ao sistema com a concentração inicial. Apresentaremos um estudo da transferência de tensão entre as paredes dos nanotubos através das conexões, e mostraremos que, dependendo da concentração de defeitos, a transferência de tensão pode chegar até 75% da tensão máxima. / We have investigated the influence of defects on structural, electronic and mechanical properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT), bundles of nanotubes and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). All our results were obtained with the first principles theory of total energy - Density Functional theory (DFT). We have investigated the structural properties of four defects in single-walled nanotubes: Stone-Wales (5577), monovacancy and two divacancies (585) and (555777). We show the behavior of the formation energy as a function of tube diameter for all structures. In this study, we have observed that divacancies have a stability reversal, when we compare the formation energies of these defects in nanotubes and graphene and, moreover, they are the most important defects in the modification of transport properties of SWCNT. We have studied the stability and transport properties of these systems. The defect 585 is less stable in graphene due to two breaks bonds in pentagons. We have observed that the 555777 becomes more stable than the 585, for armchair (zigzag) with a diameter of about 40 °A (53 °A), respectively. We have studied the structural and mechanics properties of bundles of carbon nanotubes with vacancy-vacancy defects, V¹2 and V² 2 . Due to carbon nanotube geometric structure these defects have lower formation energy than in graphene. These defects can form connections between the walls of this bunldes and we present how this imperfection can change the shear modulus of this nanotubes. We have also studied the barrier to form the connection with the method Nudged Elastic Band- NEB. Finally, we have investigated the structural and mechanical properties of multiwalled nanotubes (MWCNT) with defects like vacancy-interstitial (Wigner defect) and vacancy-vacancy (V¹2 and V² 2 defects). We show that this system have several possibilities for the Wigner defect. We observed that the more stable of all vacancyinterstitial defect is the case of the system that have a pentagon in the inner tube and the pentagon atoms participate in the connection (Wigner-Ia defect). We have studied the stability of these defects in two concentrations (½d = 0.082 [def.°A1] and ½d = 0.164 [def.°A1]). In the study of mechanical properties in these systems, we observe the improvements in shear modulus by a factor of up to 15, compared with the system without connection. When we doubled the concentration of defects the shear modulus increases by a factor of 3. We present a study of load transfer between the walls of DWCNT through the connections and we show that depending on the concentration of defects, the load transfer could be up to 75% of the maximum load.

Nesse trabalho investigamos a influência de defeitos nas propriedades estruturais, eletrônicas e mecânicas de nanotubos de parede simples (SWCNT), em feixes de nanotubos e em nanotubos de parede múltipla (MWCNT). Todos os nossos resultados foram obtidos utilizando uma teoria de primeiros princípios de energia total, a Teoria do Funcional da Densidade (DFT). Investigamos as propriedades estruturais para quatro defeitos em nanotubos de parede simples: Stone-Wales (5577), monovacância e duas divacâncias (585) e (555777), e o comportamento da energia de formação em função do diâmetro para as quatro estruturas. Observamos que as divacâncias apresentam uma inversão de estabilidade, quando comparamos as energias de formação desses defeitos em nanotubos com o grafeno e, alám disso, as divacâncias são os defeitos mais importantes na modificação das propriedades de transporte em SWCNT. Estudamos a estabilidade e as propriedades de transporte desses sistemas e observamos que o defeito 585 é menos estável em grafeno devido à quebra de duas ligações dos pentágonos do defeito. O defeito 555777 torna-se mais estável do que o 585 para os CNT armchair (zigzag) com o diâmetro 40 °A (53 °A). Investigamos as propriedades estruturais e mecânicas de feixes de nanotubos com os defeitos do tipo vacância-vacância, V¹2 e V²2 . Devido à estrutura geomátrica dos nanotubos, esses defeitos possuem energia de formação menores do que em grafeno. Apresentaremos como as conexões modificam o módulo de cisalhamento dos nanotubos e também mostraremos o processo de formação das conexões através do método Nudged Elastic Band- NEB. Por fim, foram investigadas as propriedades estruturais e mecânicas de nanotubos de parede dupla (DWCNT) com defeitos do tipo vacância-interstício (defeito de Wigner) e os defeitos do tipo vacância-vacância (defeitos V¹2 e V ²2 ). Mostraremos que neste sistema existem várias possibilidades para o defeito de Wigner. Observamos que o defeito de Wigner mais estável é o que possui um pentágono no tubo interno e que os átomos do pentágono, formados pelo defeito, participam da conexão (Wigner-I-a). Investigamos a estabilidade desses defeitos em duas concentrações (½d = 0.082 [def.°A1] e ½d = 0.164 [def.°A1]). As propriedades mecânicas desses sistemas foram investigadas e constatamos uma melhora do módulo de cisalhamento por um fator de até 15, quando comparado com o sistema sem defeito e, quando dobramos a concentração de defeitos, o módulo de cisalhamento aumenta por um fator de 3 em relação ao sistema com a concentração inicial. Apresentaremos um estudo da transferência de tensão entre as paredes dos nanotubos através das conexões, e mostraremos que, dependendo da concentração de defeitos, a transferência de tensão pode chegar até 75% da tensão máxima. / We have investigated the influence of defects on structural, electronic and mechanical properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT), bundles of nanotubes and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). All our results were obtained with the first principles theory of total energy - Density Functional theory (DFT). We have investigated the structural properties of four defects in single-walled nanotubes: Stone-Wales (5577), monovacancy and two divacancies (585) and (555777). We show the behavior of the formation energy as a function of tube diameter for all structures. In this study, we have observed that divacancies have a stability reversal, when we compare the formation energies of these defects in nanotubes and graphene and, moreover, they are the most important defects in the modification of transport properties of SWCNT. We have studied the stability and transport properties of these systems. The defect 585 is less stable in graphene due to two breaks bonds in pentagons. We have observed that the 555777 becomes more stable than the 585, for armchair (zigzag) with a diameter of about 40 °A (53 °A), respectively. We have studied the structural and mechanics properties of bundles of carbon nanotubes with vacancy-vacancy defects, V¹2 and V² 2 . Due to carbon nanotube geometric structure these defects have lower formation energy than in graphene. These defects can form connections between the walls of this bunldes and we present how this imperfection can change the shear modulus of this nanotubes. We have also studied the barrier to form the connection with the method Nudged Elastic Band- NEB. Finally, we have investigated the structural and mechanical properties of multiwalled nanotubes (MWCNT) with defects like vacancy-interstitial (Wigner defect) and vacancy-vacancy (V¹2 and V² 2 defects). We show that this system have several possibilities for the Wigner defect. We observed that the more stable of all vacancyinterstitial defect is the case of the system that have a pentagon in the inner tube and the pentagon atoms participate in the connection (Wigner-Ia defect). We have studied the stability of these defects in two concentrations (½d = 0.082 [def.°A1] and ½d = 0.164 [def.°A1]). In the study of mechanical properties in these systems, we observe the improvements in shear modulus by a factor of up to 15, compared with the system without connection. When we doubled the concentration of defects the shear modulus increases by a factor of 3. We present a study of load transfer between the walls of DWCNT through the connections and we show that depending on the concentration of defects, the load transfer could be up to 75% of the maximum load.

Les propriétés exceptionnelles des nanotubes de carbone (CNT) attirent de nombreux industriels dans les domaines de la microélectronique, des matériaux ou de la nanomédecine. Néanmoins, le risque sanitaire lié à ce nanomatériau reste encore mal compris. Des profils toxicologiques différents, dépendant des caractéristiques physico-Chimiques des CNT, ont été mis en évidence. Une approche « safer by design » est proposée, afin d’identifier les paramètres pouvant, dès la conception des CNT, pour limiter le risque sanitaire. Dans ce contexte, cette thèse avait pour objectif d’étudier l’impact sur la réponse in vitro d’une lignée de macrophages murins (RAW 264.7) de deux traitements de post-Production de CNT : la fonctionnalisation acide et le recuit haute température.Les groupements acides en surface des CNT fonctionnalisés ont entrainé une augmentation de la réponse pro-Inflammatoire sans influencer significativement la cytotoxicité. D’un autre côté, la fonctionnalisation acide, principalement par l’élimination des impuretés métalliques, a permis de diminuer le stress oxydant. Les CNT recuits à haute température étaient à l’origine d’une réponse pro-Inflammatoire plus importante que les CNT bruts, confirmant lasensibilité de cette réponse biologique à la chimie de surface. En revanche, le recuit n’a pas diminué significativement le stress oxydant malgré la purification des CNT, suggérant l’importance des défauts de structure sur cette réponse biologique. La fonctionnalisation acide de nano-Graphite et de noir de carbone a eu un impact similaire à celle des CNT sur l’activité biologique des macrophages. La comparaison de ces trois nanomatériaux fonctionnalisés semble s’accorder avec le paradigme mettant en exergue la toxicité spécifique des fibres et des plaquettes. Enfin, afin de compléter ces résultats, des études exploratoires sur les interférences entre les tests de toxicité et les CNT, ainsi que sur le stress oxydant, ont été conduites. / Due to their exceptional properties, carbon nanotubes (CNT) have aroused a huge interest among in industrial fields such as microelectronics, material science and nanomedicine. Nevertheless, the health impacts of this nanomaterial still remain not well understood. The first toxicological studies pointed out that there is no unique response regarding the healthimpact of the CNT, but different toxicological profiles according to their various physicochemical properties. A safer by design approach is thus proposed to identify the parameters decreasing from their production the CNT biological impacts. In this context, this work aimed at studying the impact on the in vitro response from a macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) of two post-Production treatments: acid functionalization and high temperature annealing.Surface acid groups from functionalized CNT enhanced the pro-Inflammatory response although the cytotoxicity remained stable. On the other hand, acid functionalization, through the elimination of metallic impurities, significantly decreased the oxidative stress. Annealed CNT increased the pro-Inflammatory response compared to the pristine CNT. It thus confirmed the sensitivity of this response for the changes in surface chemistry. However, the high temperature annealing did not influence the oxidative stress, despite of the CNT purification. It suggested that structural defects are also of importance for this response. Besides, the acid functionalization of nano-Graphite and carbon black displayed trends in the macrophage response similar to the acid functionalization of CNT. The comparison of these three carbon-Based nanomaterials seemed to conform to the fibre and platelets paradigm. Eventually, exploratory studies have also been conducted on the interferences between CNT and the toxicity assays, and on the oxidative stress.

Title: Diffusion of native defects and impurities in CdTe/CdZnTe. Author: Lukáš Šedivý Author's e-mail address: luky.sedivy@seznam.cz Department: Institute of Physics of Charles University Supervisor: Doc. Ing. Eduard Belas, CSc. Supervisor's e-mail address: belas@karlov.mff.cuni.cz Abstract: In this thesis, the influence of structural defects on the electrical and de- tection characteristics of CdTe material was investigated. The performed research fo- cused on the reduction of structural defects in the material by annealing in Cd or Te vapor, while preserving acceptable features for X-ray and γ-ray detection. The mate- rial was characterized by measurement of the electrical resistivity and concentration and mobility of free carriers. Tellurium and cadmium inclusions were studied using infrared microscope. The static and dynamic properties of defect structures at high temperatures and de- fined Cd pressures was investigated, as well, and chemical diffusion coeficients describing the dynamic properties of these defects were experimentally determined. Keywords: monocrystal CdTe, structural defects in semiconductors, annealing in Cd or Te, chemical diffusion coefficient, γ-ray detectors. 1