This research investigates how environmental consultancies frame participation as a tool for project implementation using a cross-border conservation initiative as a case study. The study focuses on the facilitation process led by Eco-Africa Environmental Consultants during the establishment of the /Ai-/Ais Richtersveld Transfrontier Conservation Area. This study analyzes the promise of participation as a crucial component for Transfrontier Conservation Areas. Analyzing participation of the Richtersvelders is necessary for understanding the work that was carried out and how it was experienced by the stakeholders. The study refers to participation in conservancies in community-based resource management, where the role of non-government organizations and environmental consultancies is well established. Primary data were collected through qualitative document analysis, semi-structured interviews with members of the four communities and with Eco-Africa Environmental Consultants. The findings of the study are that there was a strong attempt towards an all-inclusive bottom-up approach to participation. However, such the success of such an approach was hampered by local mismanagement, politics of money, and a marketing strategy favoring the South African National Parks and the Transfrontier Conservation project.

Transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) are considered the latest evolution of a more holistic approach to transnational environmental management that brings together conservation and development agendas. As part of bio political governance, TFCAs are ecologically, economically and politically motivated. Using a discourse analytical perspective of claims advanced for TFCAs in Southern Africa, this study explores how Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) TFCA has been motivated. The study questions the interests of Botswana government participation in the KAZA TFCA and examines the effects of the KAZA TFCA on local communities. This study employs a qualitative approach employing triangulation methods of data collection. KAZA is one of the largest and most ambitious transboundary initiative in the world that stretches across the political borders of five sovereign states. KAZA acknowledges that nature knows no boundaries hence conservation corridors should traverse political boundaries and borders of the state. Against this backdrop, the rationale for KAZA is to provide the large herds of elephants (approximately 120,000) in Botswana with access to large area of grazing land. The study demonstrates how the burgeoning elephant population is inextricably linked with border policing, tourism and conservation. KAZA considers participation and local community involvement in planning and decision making as legitimate for sustainable natural resource management. However, the current realities exist in contrast to these considerations. The study reveals that there is a disparity between theory and practice as KAZA is yet to deliver its promises to the local communities. The thesis asserts that it is critical to view KAZA as a complex, evolving and long-term initiative that will be interesting to follow in the future.

This research assesses the scope of stakeholder engagement and its effectiveness in the development and implementation of an Environmental Management Plan at project level. The theoretical basis of this research is the methodological premise that stakeholder engagement encourages quality environmental decisions and further promotes acceptable interventions for environmental management purposes towards sustainable development. A case study of the Berg Water Project is used to explore this premise through an evaluation of the scope and effectiveness of engagement of stakeholders in the formulation and implementation of the construction environmental management plan, to satisfy conditions of authorization. Focus is placed on the scope of stakeholders and their issues, and evaluation of the effectiveness of the engagement process in considering the issues during decision-making processes. The scope focuses on who was involved, the context in which they were involved, and the extent to which they were involved. An engagement framework is used to assess the effectiveness of the engagement process, including project institutions for stakeholder engagement, levels and methods of engagement applied, and their contribution to an effective Environmental Impact Assessment process with regard to its review areas of procedural, substantive and transactive effectiveness. The assessment seeks insights on how issues and concerns relating to activities of engagement were dealt with, and the extent to which issues raised through engagement contributed into project decisions. Evaluation of activities applies a stakeholder mapping and analysis concept found in stakeholder engagement literature in order to establish the suitability of level of engagement and methods of engagement. Logistical support for the engagement process is also assessed to establish how the support, or lack thereof, affected engagement effectiveness. An assessment is made of project documents within formation on stakeholders engaged during the environmental impact assessment process leading to the production of the construction environmental management plan, and information obtained from 45 interviewees from stakeholders who were engaged. The engagement process is accepted to be significantly inclusive as it covered a wide spectrum of stakeholders and gave them an opportunity to voice their concerns, and the outcomes indicated that the engagement process was adequate. Some notable weaknesses of the engagement process included failure to establish clear roles and responsibilities of the environmental monitoring committee-the entity which represented the interested and affected parties, failure to establish explicit engagement targets, and failure to identify potential trade-offs of environmental, economic and social expectations of stakeholders. By and large the effectiveness of engagement during the project was found to rest on commitment by project authorities to prioritize economic benefits for the local community, and the communication of relevant messages to stakeholders. Important lessons can be derived from this research towards improving the theory and practice of Environmental Impact Assessment. Firstly, explicit legal and funding requirements for stakeholder engagement are important prerequisites which should be imposed on project implementers regarding how they conduct the engagement process. Secondly, the presence, composition and functioning of a formal entity which represents the interests of identified interested and affected parties can broaden the range of issues that can inform project decisions. This entity should have clear roles which satisfy engagement objectives through scheduled activities which receive adequate logistical support. Thirdly, a communication approach should be devised to enable communication of relevant messages and ensure feedback mechanisms which inform and can improve the process. Lastly monitoring and auditing during the engagement process should have been done to assess satisfaction of substantive outcomes of engagement and environmental impact assessment beyond mere process compliance.

Fisheries are complex socio-ecological systems consisting of both human and ecological components. Managing fishery resources has almost always focused on ecological concerns without due consideration being given to the human dimensions. However, increasingly more scholars are recognising the need to integrate the human dimensions of fisheries management with the ecological concerns. Managing a fishery solely on the basis of ecological information will result in the management strategies being unsuccessful. Understanding the human dimensions is important as it provides insights into who participates in the fisheries industry, and what the behavioural patterns and motivations of the fishers are. This study focused on understanding the human dimensions of fishing at Zeekoevlei, focusing on who the fishers are and why they engage in fishing. It also addressed the source of conflicts at Zeekoevlei. The management of Zeekoevlei and fishing activities is also considered. A mixed methods approach, using a case study design, was adopted. The sample included fourteen fishers and six individuals involved on various levels of management of Zeekoevlei. Data-collection methods included the use of a structured questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. On the basis of this study, the demographics show that two types of fishers were found at Zeekoevlei – recreational and small scale. These fisher groups display contrasting socio-demographic profiles; however, a correlation between socio-demographics and motivations was observed. Recreational fishers appear to be white, educated males who are employed and engage in fishing for a sense of achievement, which is underpinned by the size of the fish. Small-scale fishers, on the other hand, are unemployed coloured males, with low levels of education and to this group of fishers the Zeekoevlei fishery system has an important function as it is used to diversify livelihoods. As with many fisheries, conflicts are prevalent at Zeekoevlei. These conflicts arise between fishers because Zeekoevlei has limited demarcated fishing spots and fishers display ownership over these spots; to exacerbate this situation, Zeekoevlei is located in an open reserve, which makes it easier for fishers to enter the reserve illegally. The management of the vlei appears to be based on recreational considerations with unclear measures to accommodate small-scale fisheries.

Evaluating the success of the growing number of climate adaptation initiatives is challenging. Assessment of adaptive capacity has been used to focus, prioritise and track the progress of adaptation interventions as well as to identify key barriers to and opportunities for implementing adaptation. Many adaptive capacity assessments have relied on secondary data and expert judgement. Given the call in climate change research and practice for bottom-up approaches that value communities' insight, it is clear that more participatory approaches for the assessment of adaptive capacity need to be developed. This research aims to address this gap by developing an adaptive capacity index that adopts a mixed methods approach and prioritises input from local stakeholders. Many adaptive capacity assessments have focussed on rural areas where livelihoods are directly exposed to climate variability. There is growing recognition that increasing numbers of people are settling in urban areas and many of these livelihoods are often at the margin. This thesis focuses on urban livelihoods where a more holistic understanding of adaptive capacity is required which recognises that a community's capacity to adjust to climatic stressors is interlinked to its capacity to adjust to environmental, social, economic and political challenges. An adaptive capacity index is developed in this thesis that includes and characterises the more subjective determinants of adaptive capacity, rather than giving precedence to material resources as the key determinant of a community's adaptive capacity. To achieve this richer understanding, the index is informed by a framework that incorporates aspects of individuals' agency and social cohesion. Using a case study of four towns in the Bergrivier Municipality, South Africa, this research develops an index of adaptive capacity that is holistic, collaborative and interdisciplinary. The scores generated by the index are analysed using statistical and regression analyses that are contextualised by stakeholders' inputs to explore the variation in adaptive capacity across socially differentiated groups. Key insights from these analyses relate to the variation in adaptive capacity between the four towns and differences in the adaptive capacity of males and females. Interestingly, the analyses revealed the absence of a positive correlation between schooling level and both adaptive capacity and wellbeing variables which could be attributed to limited economic opportunities in the area, particularly for high-skilled workers. The analyses also highlighted the need to support initiatives that strengthen the social cohesion within the community to improve the inclusion of marginal demographic groups. The thesis reflects on the participatory and collaborative research process, finding that combining quantitative and qualitative data through an interdisciplinary process has the potential to provide an index that is more reflective of subjective capacity. This more holistic understanding of adaptive capacity can align with the field of wellbeing, to offer valuable insight into building adaptive capacity for urban livelihoods that is grounded in both academic and applied fields.

Resilience simply means to rebound when exposed to a disruptive event. Damage to bridges in transportation networks usually result in long detours and increased travel time hence have massive cost implications. Transportation networks composed of major bridge infrastructures frequently depend on the bridges to carry high traffic volumes. Transportation network resilience explains the ability of transportation networks to contain and recover from disruptions. Transportation network resilience entails the transportation network’s capability to continue functioning in spite of hazard-induced breakdown to network segments and how quickly those sections can be restored for the network to return to pre-disaster performance levels. Most resilience-related research in this area have primarily focused on physical bridge resilience without necessarily considering the resilience impact of bridge damage on the overall or regional network. This thesis is focused on filling this research gap by considering the resilience of transportation networks subject to bridge damage and road closures. This research further proposes the use of regional travel demand models and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) visualization techniques for network level impact visualization and accessibility analyses. The socio-technical approach associated with transportation system resilience is broad and multidisciplinary, focusing on the network’s ability to sustain functionality and recover speedily when faced with disruptions or shocks. Academic works in this area are generally viewed in terms of having qualitative or quantitative frameworks. There is also significantly less literature evaluating response and recovery phases of resilience. Developed resilience indexes have sparsely touched on many salient aspects of resilience; hence they are only applicable to very specific scenarios. Further investigative efforts are therefore necessary for post-disaster phases of resilience, evaluating the applicability of resilience indexes on multiple hazard events for transportation networks, and developing resilience indexes based on regional road network models while considering all network links and not just alternative routes. Temporary, long-term, and partial closures to bridges can result in enormous cost implications. However, bridge closures are inevitable not only due to the likelihood of hazard-induced damages, but routine maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation (MR&R) activities may also warrant closures. It is a current practice that vehicles are rerouted to the shortest alternative route (detour approach) during bridge closures. In an initial study, a scenario-based network approach for evaluating the impact of bridge closures on transportation user cost is proposed. Both the detour-based and network-based approaches were applied to the Tampa Bay regional network model while considering five bridge closure scenarios. User costs were computed in terms of delay and vehicle operating costs. Findings indicated that for closures to I-275, Gandy, Highway 580 and W.C.C Causeway bridges, there were increases of about 42%, 18%, 61%, and 45% respectively, in total user costs for the network-based approach when compared with the current detour-only approach, indicating a significant network impact captured by the network-based approach. The proposed methodology captures the effects of bridge closures on all road segments within the regional network jurisdiction, provides a more rigid framework for analysis by ensuring user costs are computed efficiently while avoiding overestimation, takes into account the fact that road users may have advance knowledge of roadway conditions prior to trips hence significantly influencing route choices, and provides sufficient information for agencies to implement preemptive measures to cater for network-level disruptions due to bridge closures. Also, regional network resilience was assessed, first through a schematic framework developed for selecting at-risk bridges during hurricane events by: (i) computing exposure probabilities for hurricane events at bridge locations; (ii) developing bridge damage state functions and damage state rating assignments using historical data from the National Bridge Inventory (NBI) database; (iii) identification of bridges at risk to hurricane-induced damage; and (iv) computing aging accessibility to hospitals from which resilience was measured. Results indicated an increase from about 1200 minutes to 2100 minutes and from about 900 to 1100 minutes, for the congested travel time (CTT) and free flow travel time (FFTT), respectively, representing about 75% and 15% for CTT and FFTT, respectively. Furthermore, an additional total travel distance of 52.85 miles was observed for CTT and FFTT. The mean travel times after bridge closures increased from 8.43 to 15.1 minutes and from 6.6 to 7.76 minutes for CTT and FFTT, respectively. The resulting resilience index scaled from 0 to 1 was computed with 1 representing a network which can recover immediately after a disruption (or a network without any performance loss) and zero for one that may never recover to its pre-disaster form. Restoration to moderately damaged bridge led to functionality improvement from 0.87 to 0.94 considering FFTT, and from 0.57 to 0.83 considering the CTT. Reinstating extensively-damaged bridges resulted in functionality increase from 0.94 to 0.96, and 0.83 to 0.85, respectively, for FFTT and CTT. The resilience index for this study was computed as 0.94 and 0.81 for FFTT and CTT respectively, implying a significant loss in senior mobility hence the need for mitigation measures A framework for assessing the regional network resilience was developed by leveraging scenario-based traffic modeling and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques. High impact zones location identification metrics were developed and implemented in preliminarily identifying areas affected by bridge closures. Resilience index measures were developed by utilizing practical functionality metrics based on vehicle distance and hours traveled. These are illustrated for the Tampa Bay area. Findings for ten bridge closure scenarios and recovery schemas indicate substantial regional network functionality losses during closures. I-275 bridge closure yielded the highest functional loss to the regional network: the aggregated resilience index below 0.5 reflects severe network performance deficit and mobility limitations. Closure to the WCC Causeway bridge results in a network level resilience index value of 0.87, while the indexes for the other scenarios range between 0.76 and 0.97. These results reflect the high dependency of the network on the I-275 bridge. Damage to this bridge is foreseen to have a massive impact on the network in terms of travel cost. Lower resilience index values imply either significant functionality losses or lengthy closure durations or both. To demonstrate the proposed methodology, a hypothetical network illustration indicated that: (i) Single bridge closure scenarios recorded significant performance losses for bridges which directly connected to the destination zone; (ii) Resilience indexes echoed the need to compare predicted recovery times to scheduled restoration times since index measures are either compensated or penalized the speed of predicted recovery with respect to scheduled recovery durations; (iii) Sensitivity analyses reinforced the previous assertion by accounting for both performance loss and restoration or recovery times; (iv) Multiple closures had a significant impact on network performance hence rapidity is vital in improving network resilience. Like any study, there are some limitations identified in this research. While it was clearly identified that variation in response and recovery times may have a significant impact on explaining and formulating resilience measures, there is insufficient data on the road closure and bridge closure durations after hazard events. Such databases will help researchers in evaluating resilience more accurately. Furthermore, even though case studies in this thesis took into account large networks, the utilized models were based on static traffic assignment which suffices for long-term transportation planning. However, it is recommended that use of dynamic traffic assignment models should be explored since they are known to reflect more accurate travel times. This is especially important for equity-based case study applications with respect to post-disaster accessibility. The use of user equilibrium assignment which accounts for each road user minimizing his or her travel time was used for this study, it is recommended that the system optimal solution which minimizes the overall network travel time should be considered since it may be of specific interest to agencies. Solution-based resilience studies are encouraged, especially efforts which incorporate the influx of connected and autonomous vehicles and other shared mobility solutions. This study also recognized the need for collaborative efforts between management authorities and researchers to facilitate the development and implementation of necessary policies and systems for the enhancement of transportation systems’ resilience. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2018. / July 19, 2018. / Bridges, Hazards, Infrastructure, Network Performance, Resilience, Transportation Networks / Includes bibliographical references. / John O. Sobanjo, Professor Directing Dissertation; Eric Chicken, University Representative; Ren Moses, Committee Member; Eren E. Ozguven, Committee Member.

The Dube AgriZone has been described as an agricultural cluster development zone situated at an air logistics platform called the Dube TradePort in La Mercy, KwaZulu-Natal. The Dube AgriZone was launched in 2012 and aims to stimulate the growth of KwaZulu-Natal's perishable goods sector by producing high-value fresh produce all-year round in high quantities for both domestic and international markets. The main objective of this study was to investigate the current performance status of the Dube AgriZone's operation. This research made use of data collected from key informant interviews, document analysis and observational recordings during site visits. The information was used to compile a case study of the Dube AgriZone as an example of agriculture at an airport precinct (aerotropoli agriculture). Findings of this research have shown that the Dube AgriZone has operated with some success and failure during Phase 1. Infrastructural, logistics, financial, market, climate and administrative issues at the farming facility surfaced during this investigation. This study advocates that more research is needed on how to assist the Dube AgriZone project to operate optimally combating the current issues that it faces. It is hoped that this research can offer an interesting contribution to information on agricultural projects situated at airport precincts.

For centuries, nontimber forest products have been key aspects of household diets throughout the world. In southern Africa, mopane worms are widely harvested for household consumption and traded for income generation. This study investigated the contribution of mopane worm harvesting to rural livelihoods, and the effects of environmental change on mopane worm harvesting in rural households in order to understand how households attain sustainable livelihoods under different tenure types in rural areas in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Specific objectives were to determine the current significance and contribution of mopane worm harvesting and trading to rural livelihoods; to gauge the perceptions of harvesters and traders on forms of environmental change which have affected mopane worm availability and how consumption and trade patterns have changed in the last 20 years; to assess access and management of mopane resources under different tenure types; and, to explore mopane worm use in the context of the sustainable livelihoods framework. The research was conducted in the villages of Bokmakierie, Matiyani, Ha Gumbu, Masisi, Zwigodini, and Mphambo in Vhembe district and Nkomo village in Mopani district in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Additional interviews were conducted with traders at markets in Thohoyandou, Makhado, Malamulele, Giyani and Elim in the Vhembe and Mopane districts, Limpopo Province. The study employed qualitative methods to collect data and included semi-structured household and key informant interviews. The respondents and key informants were identified through snowball sampling techniques. The significance of mopane worms in the study area is three-fold: it is an important source of food, it is a valuable trading commodity, and it is an intrinsic part of local cultural practices. The findings of this study indicated that the historical value placed on mopane worms as a food source and trading commodity has been passed down for generations. Trading was found to be important form of employment for rural people who have limited prospects of formal employment, and had the potential to generate higher income levels than wage labour in rural contexts. The decline in mopane tree density, vegetation change, lower-than-normal precipitation, and higher-than-normal temperatures were the leading forms of environmental change which have significantly affected mopane worm availability and outbreak events. Household consumption and trade patterns were altered as a result of the weather and climatic conditions shock arising from the El Niño phenomenon. Land tenure type was found to be the primary determinant of resource management and access regimes in the harvesting areas. Within the context of the sustainable livelihoods framework, the following findings were made. The limited availability of mopane worms presented a key constraint for the households and traders. The high availability of labour from family of the harvesters suggests human capital is strong. Furthermore, the strong social links and networks which resulted from family-level and community-wide participation strengthened the social capital opportunities. Physical and financial capital were found to have greatest threat to the attainment of sustainable livelihood. Households suffer poverty and are not easily able to access financial resources. This served as a hindrance for households and limited their income earning potential. In respect of these findings the following recommendations are made: further empirical investigations should be undertaken to determine the status of mopane worm populations; improved cooperation between traditional leaders, harvesters and local government is suggested as an option for management of the communal harvesting areas; the interplay between access, land tenure and harvesting requires further research.

Cape Town's Green Point Park is a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, built on the then dilapidated, former Common. Initially heavily contested, it is now a beautiful, popular, and well-used public space that attracts diverse people from all over the city. The thesis narrates its paradoxical story by drawing on historical and archival data, park observations, a transect walk, as well as qualitative interviews with city planners, park management, service providers, and the formerly sceptical local public. First, the thesis reflects on the conflictual planning process that led to this new urban park and a changed vision and function for the Common. Second, it explores the park's everyday operation, the management and maintenance that are central to its present acceptance and safe, clean and pristine condition. I argue that the City's planning 'by exception' of the park, and the public-private management vehicle is central to its success and differentiates it from how others operate in the city. I suggest that this neoliberally planned and managed public park produces a paradox: it has restored this space once again as a usable and accessible public 'common'. This argument challenges a literature that assumes neoliberal forms of planning and regulation to limit, at best, or destroy urban spaces, resulting in a similar 'tragedy of the commons' (Hardin, 1968) or 'end of public space' (Sorkin, 1992; Mitchell, 1995). In contrast, the thesis builds on Jerram's (2015) critique in that the traditional commons too often become 'historical fantasy,' a theorised ideal and almost impossible reality, in the contemporary neoliberal era. This more nuanced assessment of the contemporary commons is important in the South African urban context, where there is great concern that neoliberal, market-led, world city agendas perpetuate exclusion and historical legacies of segregation (Marais, 2013). In a 'paradox of the commons', this publicly regulated, privately maintained free-to-the-public park has restored what was previously a Commons, albeit an unsafe and largely unused space. The Green Point Urban Park suggests a need to 'rethink' parks and their planning and management in contemporary and neoliberal post-apartheid South Africa. They do not necessarily result in a certain 'tragedy of the commons' or 'end of public space'.

The aim of this study was to investigate the impacts of urbanisation on the use of, and access to, NTFPs in three settlements in the Chobe District of northern Botswana. Specific objectives were to determine the extent of NTFP use occurring in these areas; the purposes of use; the factors that influence use and access in the rural/urban context, particularly government rules and regulations; and implications for future NTFP use in this region. Research was conducted in three settlements: Kasane, Kazungula and Lesoma. Kasane is an urban town, Kazungula is less urbanised and Lesoma is a rural village. All areas are surrounded by state-owned Forest Reserves and the Chobe National Park. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods including household interviews (30 in Kasane, 30 in Kazungula and 25 in Lesoma), four key informant interviews, two focus groups with youth and the collection of other grey literature relating to government harvest permits and market data. Households in all three areas used NTFPs despite the different rural and urban contexts in which they exist. Kasane and Kazungula showed a less diverse range of resource use, with fuelwood and wild foods the most commonly used resources in all three areas. These resources were used mainly for subsistence purposes. Harvest locations varied but were most commonly in and around the settlements themselves. Households in Kasane and Kazungula expressed the desire to use fewer resources in the future, mainly for conservation reasons, while those in Lesoma wished to use more. The government rules and regulations, particularly the DFRR permit system, were found to restrict resource access. Despite this, households in the more urban areas felt that the laws were necessary while those households in Lesoma thought that the laws conflicted with community livelihood needs. The majority of respondents believed conservation management to be a barrier to resource access as the presence of wild animals and anti- poaching units in the harvesting areas compromised safety. The general absence of resource commercialisation and market opportunities in the settlements, especially the urban towns of Kasane and Kazungula, were other commonly cited barriers to resource access. The perceived degradation of traditional practices due to modernity and urbanisation was evident for most households in all three areas but the actual loss of indigenous knowledge was most apparent in the urban areas. Wider implications for this case study are the application of the findings to further research into the impacts of urbanisation. This study can add to the literature around the implementation of improved urban development strategies, including the reliance on NTFPs and declines in cultural and environmental degradation. Recommendations provided in this study include further investigations into resource use; the application of resource co-management; improved market infrastructure and the implementation of ecotourism and local craft-making projects.