Cetacean species face serious challenges worldwide due to the increasing noise pollution brought to their environment by human activities such as seismic exploration. Regulation of these activities is vaguely defined and uncoordinated. Visual observations and passive listening devices, aimed at preventing conflicts between human wealth and cetaceans’ health have some fundamental limitations and may consequently fail their mitigation purposes. Active sonar technology could be the optimal solution to implement mitigation of such human activities. In my thesis, the proper sonar unit was used to test the feasibility to detect cetaceans in situ. Omnidirectional sonars could be the optimal solution to monitor the presence of cetaceans in the proximity of potential danger areas. To use this class of sonar in a quantitative manner, the first step was to develop a calibration method. This thesis links in situ measurements of target strength (TS) with variation trends linked to the behavior, morphology and physiology of cetacean. The butterfly effect of a cetacean’s body was described for a fin whale insonified from different angles. A relationship between whale respiration and TS energy peaks was tested through a simple prediction model which seems very promising for further implementation. The effect of lung compression on cetacean TS due to increasing depth was tested through a basic mathematical model. The model fit the in situ TS measurements. TS measurements at depth of a humpback whale, when post-processed, correspond to TS measurements recorded at the surface. Sonar technology is clearly capable of detecting whale foot prints around an operating vessel. Sonar frequency response shows that frequencies between 18 and 38 kHz should be employed. This work has established a baseline and raised new questions so that active sonar can be developed and employed in the best interest for the whales involved in potentially harmful conflicts with man.

Acoustic survey techniques are widely used to quantify abundance and distribution of a variety of pelagic fish such as herring (Clupea harengus). The information provided is becoming increasingly important for stock assessment and ecosystem studies, however, the data collected are used as relative indices rather than absolute measures, due to the uncertainty of target strength (TS) estimates. A fish’s TS is a measure of its capacity to reflect sound and, therefore, the TS value will directly influence the estimate of abundance from an acoustic survey. The TS is a stochastic variable, dependent on a range of factors such as fish size, orientation, shape, physiology, and acoustic frequency. However, estimates of mean TS, used to convert echo energy data from acoustic surveys into numbers of fish, are conveniently derived from a single metric - the fish length (L). The TS used for herring is based on TS-L relationships derived from a variety of experiments on dead and caged fish, conducted 25-30 years ago. Recently, theoretical models for fish backscatter have been proposed to provide an alternative basis for exploring fish TS. Another problem encountered during acoustic surveys is the identification of insonified organisms. Trawl samples are commonly collected for identification purposes, however, there are several selectivity issues associated with this method that may translate directly into biased acoustic abundance estimates. The use of different acoustic frequencies has been recognised as a useful tool to distinguish between different species, based on their sound reflection properties at low and high frequencies. In this study I developed theoretical models to describe the backscatter of herring at multiple frequencies. Data collected at four frequencies (18, 38, 120 and 200 kHz) during standard acoustic surveys for herring in the North Sea were examined and compared to model results. Multifrequency backscattering characteristics of herring were described and compared to those of Norway pout, a species also present in the survey area. Species discrimination was attempted based on differences in backscatter at the different frequencies. I examined swimbladder morphology data of Baltic and Atlantic herring and sprat from the Baltic Sea. Based on these data, I modelled the acoustic backscatter of both herring stocks and attempted to explain differences previously observed in empirical data. I investigated the change in swimbladder shape of herring, when exposed to increased water pressures at deeper depths, by producing true shapes of swimbladders from MRI scans of herring under pressure. The swimbladder morphology representations in 3-D were used to model the acoustic backscatter at a range of frequencies and water pressures. I developed a probabilistic TS model of herring in a Bayesian framework to account for uncertainty associated with TS. Most likely distributions of model parameters were determined by fitting the model to in situ data. The resulting probabilistic TS was used to produce distributions of absolute abundance and biomass estimates, which were compared to official results from ICES North Sea herring stock assessment. Modelled backscatter levels of herring from the Baltic Sea were on average 2.3 dB higher than those from herring living in northeast Atlantic waters. This was attributed to differences in swimbladder sizes between the two herring stocks due to the lower salinity Baltic Sea compared to Atlantic waters. Swimbladders of Baltic herring need to be bigger to achieve a certain degree of buoyancy. Morphological swimbladder dimensions of Baltic herring and sprat were found to be different. Herring had a significantly larger swimbladder height at a given length compared to sprat, resulting in a modelled TS that was on average 1.2 dB stronger. Water depth, and therefore the increase in ambient pressure, was found to have a considerable effect on the size and shape of the herring swimbladder. Modelled TS values were found to be around 3 dB weaker at a depth of 50 m compared to surface waters. At 200 m, this difference was estimated to be about 5 dB. The Bayesian model predicted mean abundances and biomass were 23 and 55% higher, respectively, than the ICES estimates. The discrepancy was linked to the depth-dependency of the TS model and the particular size-dependent bathymetric distribution of herring in the survey area.

[EN] Marine aquaculture production has increased considerably in recent years due to the scarcity of fisheries resources and increased demand. Gilthead sea bream and European sea bass are among the most interesting species for cultivation in Spain and is usually cultivated in floating cages systems. Fish growth and biomass estimations are essential to prepare the production plan of fish farms, as well as to organize and to perform management operations. It is necessary to optimize these production processes, not only to improve economic profitability but also to minimize the environmental impact of the facilities. Acoustic techniques are most appropriate for remote sensing in the water, because acoustic waves travel long distances. For several decades acoustic methods have been employed to detect shoals of fish, so that the information provided by sonars and echo sounders is an important factor in the efficiency of current fishing operations. Today acousticians are investigating ways to accurately determine the biomass in cages by noninvasive techniques, which go through the estimation of fish abundance and size distribution. The methodology of scientific or commercial echo sounders have been directed mainly towards pelagic fishing, and it is necessary to evaluate whether the equipment and algorithms can be applied in the control of marine aquaculture farms. In order to evaluate the biomass of fish in cages, two techniques for estimating size are evaluated in this thesis, whilst the study of energy returned by the school of fish is addressed to estimate abundance, as discussed in Chapter 1. Also the acoustic response of pellets by size is characterized. In Chapter 2 general information about gilthead sea bream and European sea bass and their farming in floating cages is included. The basic concepts and formulations used in acoustics to estimate biomass are described in Chapter 3, which are useful for understanding this thesis. In Chapter 4 the suitability of using scientific sounders for estimating size is studied, with the peculiarity that fish are close to transducer. Ventral and dorsal aspects of the target strength (TS) are measured for different sizes of gilthead sea bream. TS measurements at close distances to transducer imply a series of complications and uncertainties. The relationship between TS and size will allow indirect estimation of fish size from acoustic measurements. In Chapter 5, applicability of scientific echo sounders for estimation of average size and abundance of fish in cages of gilt head sea bream and European sea bass in production conditions, which are characterized by a reduced distance between transducer and fish as well as high densities, is evaluated. The study of dorsal TS for determining fish size is limited to the volume above the shoal where detections from isolated fish are obtained, being unviable the evaluation at greater distances where the high density of school hinters the echo detection from multiple targets. The abundance of fish is evaluated by integrating energy backscattered by the school. In Chapter 6 an alternative method for estimating fish size is proposed, based on measurement of the difference of flight time between two peaks of the same echo, which correspond to reflections of the pulse transmitted in different parts of fish body. Finally, in Chapter 7 the acoustic response of pellets versus their size is measured using a scientific echo sounder, enabling the detection and identification of pellets fall. / [ES] La acuicultura marina ha aumentado considerablemente su producción en los últimos años debido a la escasez de recursos pesqueros y al aumento de la demanda. La dorada y la lubina son unas de las especies más interesantes para su cultivo en España y se cultivan normalmente en sistemas de jaulas flotantes. La estimación del crecimiento de los peces y la biomasa son esenciales en la preparación del plan de producción de granjas de peces, así como para organizar y llevar a cabo operaciones de gestión. La optimización de los procesos de producción, no sólo consigue mejorar la rentabilidad económica, sino que también permite minimizar el impacto ecológico de las instalaciones. Las técnicas acústicas resultan las más apropiadas para la detección remota en el agua, pues las ondas acústicas permiten recorrer grandes distancias. Desde hace algunas décadas se han estado empleando métodos acústicos para la detección de bancos de peces, de forma que la información proporcionada por sónares y ecosondas resulta un factor importante en la eficiencia de las operaciones actuales de pesca. Hoy en día se está investigando la manera de determinar de forma precisa la biomasa presente en jaulas mediante técnicas acústicas no invasivas, que pasan por la estimación de la abundancia de peces y la distribución de tamaños. La metodología de ecosondas científicas o comerciales se ha orientado principalmente hacia la pesca pelágica, y resulta necesario evaluar si el equipo y los algoritmos pueden aplicarse en el control de granjas de acuicultura marina. Con el fin de evaluar la biomasa de peces en jaulas, en esta tesis se evalúan dos técnicas para la estimación de la talla y se aborda el estudio de la energía devuelta por el cardumen de peces para la estimación de la abundancia, tal y como se comenta en el Capítulo 1. De igual modo se caracteriza la respuesta acústica del pienso en función de su calibre. En el Capítulo 2 se incluye información general sobre la dorada y la lubina y su cultivo en jaulas flotantes. Los conceptos básicos y las formulaciones empleadas en acústica para la estimación de biomasa se describen en el Capítulo 3, que resultan útiles para la comprensión de esta tesis. En el Capítulo 4 se estudia la idoneidad del uso de ecosondas científicas para la estimación de la talla, con la particularidad de que los peces se encuentran situados a distancias próximas al transductor. Se mide el aspecto ventral y dorsal del target strength (TS) para diferentes tallas de dorada, que a distancias tan próximas al transductor lleva implícita una serie de complicaciones e incertidumbres. La relación del TS con la talla permitirá estimar de forma indirecta el tamaño de los peces a partir de mediciones acústicas. En el Capítulo 5 se evalúa la aplicabilidad de ecosondas científicas de forma dorsal en la estimación de la talla promedio y la abundancia de peces en jaulas de dorada y lubina en condiciones de producción, que se caracteriza por una reducida separación entre el transductor y los peces así como por densidades elevadas. El estudio del TS para la determinación del tamaño queda limitado a la zona superior del cardumen donde se pueden obtener detecciones de peces aislados, siendo inviable su evaluación a mayores distancias donde la elevada densidad del cardumen hace inevitable la detección de ecos procedentes de múltiples blancos. La abundancia de peces se evalúa mediante la integración de la energía retrodispersada por el banco. En el Capítulo 6 se propone un método alternativo para la estimación del tamaño de los peces basado en la medida de la diferencia del tiempo de vuelo entre dos máximos de un mismo eco, que corresponden a las reflexiones del pulso transmitido en diferentes partes del cuerpo del pez. Por último, en el Capítulo 7 se caracteriza la respuesta acústica del pienso en función de su calibre empleando una ecosonda científica, que permitirá la d / [CAT] L'aqüicultura marina ha augmentat considerablement la seua producció en els últims anys a causa de la manca de recursos pesquers i l'augment de la demanda. La daurada i el llobarro són unes de les espècies més interessants per al seu cultiu a Espanya i es conrea normalment en sistemes de gàbies flotants. L'estimació del creixement dels peixos i la biomassa són essencials en la preparació del pla de producció de granges de peixos, així com per a organitzar i dur a terme operacions de gestió. L'optimització dels processos de producció, no només aconsegueix millorar la rendibilitat econòmica, sinó també per minimitzar l'impacte ecològic de les instal·lacions. Les tècniques acústiques resulten les més apropiades per a la detecció remota en l'aigua, degut a que les ones acústiques permeten recórrer grans distàncies. Des de fa algunes dècades s'han estat utilitzant mètodes acústics per a la detecció de bancs de peixos, de manera que la informació proporcionada per sonars i ecosondes resulta un factor important en l'eficiència de les operacions actuals de pesca. Hui en dia s'està investigant la manera de determinar de forma precisa la biomassa present en gàbies mitjançant tècniques acústiques no invasives, que passen per l'estimació de l'abundància de peixos i la distribució de la grandària. La metodologia d'ecosondes científiques o comercials s'ha orientat principalment cap a la pesca pelàgica, i resulta necessari avaluar si l'equip i els algoritmes poden aplicar-se en el control de granges d'aqüicultura marina. Per tal d'avaluar la biomassa de peixos en gàbies, en aquesta tesi s'avaluen dues tècniques per a l'estimació de la talla i s'aborda l'estudi de l'energia retornada pel banc de peixos per a l'estimació de l'abundància, tal com es comenta en el Capítol 1. De la mateixa manera es caracteritza la resposta acústica del pinso en funció del seu calibre. En el Capítol 2 s'inclou informació general sobre l'orada i el llobarro i el seu cultiu en gàbies flotants. Els conceptes bàsics i les formulacions utilitzades en acústica per a l'estimació de biomassa es descriuen en el Capítol 3, que resulten útils per a la comprensió d'aquesta tesi. En el Capítol 4 s'estudia la idoneïtat de l'ús de ecosondes científiques per a l'estimació de la talla, amb la particularitat que els peixos es troben situats a distàncies pròximes al transductor. Es mesura l'aspecte ventral i dorsal del target strength (TS) per diferents talles d'orada, que a distàncies tan properes al transductor porta implícita una sèrie de complicacions i incerteses. La relació del TS amb la talla permetrà estimar de forma indirecta la talla dels peixos a partir de mesures acústiques. En el Capítol 5 s'avalua l'aplicabilitat de ecosondes científiques de forma dorsal en l'estimació de la talla mitjana i l'abundància de peixos en gàbies d'orada i llobarro en condicions de producció, que es caracteritza per una reduïda separació entre el transductor i els peixos així com per densitats elevades. L'estudi del TS per a la determinació de la grandària queda limitat a la zona superior del banc, on es poden obtenir deteccions de peixos aïllats, sent inviable la seua avaluació a majors distàncies on l'elevada densitat del banc fa inevitable la detecció d'ecos procedents de múltiples blancs. L'abundància de peixos s'avalua mitjançant la integració de l'energia retrodispersada pel banc. Al Capítol 6 es proposa un mètode alternatiu per a l'estimació de la grandària dels peixos basat en la mesura de la diferència del temps de vol entre dos màxims d'un mateix eco, que corresponen a les reflexions del pols transmès en diferents parts del cos del peix. Finalment, en el Capítol 7 es caracteritza la resposta acústica del pinso en funció del seu calibre emprant una ecosonda científica, que permetrà la detecció i identificació de la caiguda del pinso sobrant. / Soliveres González, E. (2015). Estimación de biomasa de peces en granjas marinas mediante ultrasonidos [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/58612 / TESIS

A growing recognition of the need for effective marine environmental management as a result of the increasing exploitation of marine biological resources has highlighted the need for high speed ecological seabed mapping. The practice of mapping making extensive use of satellite remote sensing and airborne platforms is well established for terrestrial management. Marine biological resource mapping however is not readily available except in part from that derived for surface waters from satellite based ocean colour mapping. Perhaps the most fundamental reason is that of sampling difficulty, which involves broad areas of seabed coverage, irregularities of seabed surface and depth. Conventional grab sample techniques are widely accepted as a standard seabed mapping methodology that has been in use long before the advent of acoustic techniques and continue to be employed. However. they are both slow and labour intensive, factors which severely limit the spatial coverage available from practical grab sampling programs. While acoustic techniques have been used for some time in pelagic biomass assessment, only recently have acoustic techniques been applied to marine biological resource mapping of benthic communities. Two commercial bottom classifiers available in the market that use normal incidence echosounders are the RoxAnn and QTC View systems. Users and practitioners should be cautious however when using black box implementations of the two commercial systems without a proper quality control over raw acoustic data since some researchers in their studies have indicated problems with these two bottom classifiers such as, among others, a depth dependence. In this thesis, an alternative approach was adopted to the use of echosounder returns for bottom classification. / The approach used in this study is similar to,~ used in the commercial RoxAnn system. In grouping bottom types however, Multivariate analysis (Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis) was adopted instead of the allocation system normally used in the RoxAnn system, called RoxAnn squares. In addition, the adopted approach allowed for quality control over acoustic data before further analysis was undertaken. As a working hypothesis, it was assumed that on average 0 and aE2 = 0 where E1 and E2 are the roughness and hardness indices, respectively, and RO is the depth. For roughness index (E1), this was achieved by introducing a constant angular integration interval to the tail of the first OM returns whereas for hardness index (E2), this was achieved by introducing a constant depth integration interval. Since three different frequencies, i.e. 12, 38 and kHz, were operated, Principal Component Analysis was used here to reduce the dimensionality of roughness and hardness indices, formed from the three operated qu frequencies separately. The k-means technique was applied to the first principal component of roughness index and the first principal comp component of hardness index to produce separable seabed types. This produced four separable seabed types, namely soft-smooth, soft-rough, hard-smooth and hard-rough seabeds. / Principal Component Analysis was also used to reduce the dimensionality of the area backscattering coefficient sA, a relative measure of biomass of benthic mobile biota. The bottom classification results reported here appear to be robust in that, where independent ground truthing was available, acoustic classification was generally congruent with ground truth results. When investigating the relationship between derived bottom type and acoustically assessed total biomass of benthic mobile biota, no trend linking the two parameters, however, appears. Nevertheless, using the hierarchical agglomerative technique applied to a set of variables containing average first principal component of the area backscattering coefficient sA, the average first principal component of roughness and hardness indices, the centroids of first principal component of roughness and hardness indices associated with the four seabed types and species composition of fish group of the common species in trawl stations available, two main groups of quasi acoustic population are observed in the North West Shelf (NWS) study area and three groups are observed in the South East Fisheries (SEF) study area. The two main groups of quasi acoustic population in the NWS study area and the three main groups of quasi acoustic population in the study area are associated with the derived seabed types and fish groups of the common species.

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