The secretory pathway of plant cells consists of several organelles that are connected by vesicle and tubular transport. Every compartment has a distinct function and the specificity of vesicle fusion is essential to maintain the organelles identity. N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) play a crucial role in the secretory pathway driving specific vesicle fusions. A vesicle SNARE (v-SNARE) on a vesicle specifically interacts with two or three target SNAREs (t-SNAREs) on the target compartment. This event leads to vesicle membrane fusion with the membrane of the target compartment and the release of cargo molecules into the organelle lumen.<p> The aim of this work was the characterization of two <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> SNAREs. The first one is a v-SNARE, Bet11 that is the Arabidopsis ortholog of the yeast and mammal ER-Golgi v-SNARE, Bet1. In these organisms, Bet1 is involved in trafficking between the ER and Golgi apparatus. The second protein studied is a putative SNARE called Bet12 that shares high sequence identity with Bet11. In particular, I was interested in studying the sorting of these two proteins and their role in the secretory pathway of plant cells. By confocal laser microscopy, I demonstrated that these two proteins have different intracellular localization: Bet11 was mainly localized on the ER, Golgi stacks and punctate structures that I have identified as endosomes. Bet12 was localized only on the Golgi stacks. The identification of signal(s) involved in targeting of Bet11 and Bet12 were studied. To reach this aim I generated different mutant chimeras of Bet11 and Bet12. The co-expression of these chimeras with specific protein markers suggested that the distribution of these proteins was the result of a combined influence of multiple domains.<p> A serine in the Bet11 sequence was identified as a putative phosphorylation site and appeared important for proper Bet11 intracellular distribution.<p> The different intracellular distributions of Bet11 and Bet12 suggest different biological roles for the two proteins. To functionally characterize these two proteins homozygous knock-down mutants of Bet11 were screened. These plants had no evident phenotype, suggesting a possible genetic redundancy in this SNARE family.

La tesi doctoral s'emmarca dins de l'àrea de la biologia molecular de plantes, incloent algunes consideracions de tipus fisiològic, i descriu la identificació i caracterització de 5 gens Arabidopsis que codifiquen proteïnes amb similitud estructural amb els transportadors de coure eucariotes de la família Ctr. Els resultats del treball s'han dividit en tres capítols. En el primer d'ells s'analitza a nivell teòric les seqüències dels polipèptids de la família COPT d'Arabidopsis, s'investiga la seua funcionalitat en un sistema d'expressió heteròleg i es caracteritza de forma global el perfil d'expressió dels gens de la família. En aquest apartat es mostra que COPT1 i COPT2 restableixen amb gran eficiència el creixement en medi de selecció d'una soca de llevat deficient en el transport de coure d'alta afinitat i s'estableix que l'expressió dels dos transportadors es reprimeix en resposta a un tractament amb dosis tòxiques de coure. Per un altre costat, COPT3 i COPT5 complementen amb baixa eficiència al mutant de llevat i no responen al tractament amb coure. Les conclusions d'aquest primer apartat permeten proposar un model sobre la localització i funció cel·lular dels transportadors de la família. Els altres dos capítols de la tesi es centren específicament en l'estudi del gen COPT1. En el segon capítol, es descriu l'obtenció de plantes transgèniques que expressen un gen quimèric format per la fusió del promotor de COPT1 al gen GUS. L'anàlisi histoquímic d'aquestes plantes permet dilucidar que el gen COPT1 s'expressa en embrions i plàntules d'Arabidopsis. A més, en plantes adultes, l'expressió de COPT1 es restringeix als àpex radiculars, als tricomes, a les cèl·lules guarda i al pol·len. En l'últim capítol de la tesi s'exposa l'anàlisi fenotípic de plantes transgèniques que sobreexpressen i silencien COPT1, focalitzant l'estudi en els teixits descrits en el capítol anterior. Així, es mostra que la sobreexpressió de COPT1 causa hipersensibilitat al coure i l'activació dels sistemes de segrest cel·lulars, representats per la metal·lotioneïna MT1a. D'altra banda, el silenciament postranscripcional de COPT1 causa una reducció en l'absorció de coure, hipersensibilitat al dèficit de coure, un allargament de l'arrel primari i irregularitats en la formació de la coberta d'exina. Globalment, els resultats de la tesi descriuen per primera vegada l'expressió d'un transportador de coure als arrels d'una planta superior i assenyalen la participació de COPT1 en l'absorció de coure i en altres processos fisiològics i del desenvolupament vegetatiu i reproductiu d'Arabidopsis thaliana. / The work presented in this thesis describes the identification and characterization of 5 genes (COPT1-5) encoding putative Ctr-like Arabidopsis copper transporters. The first chapter encompasses a theoretical comparison of the COPT protein sequences, a functional study in a heterologous system and a preliminary expression and copper-regulation pattern analysis. COPT1 and COPT2 restore with high efficiency the growth of a yeast strain deficient in high affinity copper uptake and both genes are downregulated by exposure of leaves to copper treatment. COPT3 and COPT5 poorly substitute for their yeast counterparts and do not respond to copper treatment. Based on these results, a model for the cellular function of the COPT family members is proposed. The second chapter describes the generation and analysis of transgenic plants expressing a GUS reporter gene under the control of the COPT1 promoter. GUS specific staining is specifically detected in embryos, cotyledons, root tips, tricomes, guard cells and pollen grains. The last chapter describes the generation and phenotypical analysis of Arabidopsis transgenic plants overexpressing and silencing the COPT1 gene. Overexpression of COPT1 causes enhanced copper sensitivity and constitutive activation of the metallothionein gene MT1a. Overexpressing the complementary sequence of COPT1 produces a reduction in copper absorption, enhanced sensitivity to copper deficiency, increased root length and abnormalities in the pollen exine layer. Overall, the results presented here describe for the first time the expression of a copper transporter in the roots of a higher plant and indicate the participation of COPT1 in copper uptake and other physiological and developmental processes of Arabidopsis thaliana

In sexually reproducing individuals, intraorganismal genetic heterogeneity (IGH) or mosaicism is thought to occur infrequently while genetic homogeneity is presumed the norm. In organisms that undergo modular development, such as long-lived plants, IGH has been substantially documented. In Arabidopsis thaliana we have shown that non-parental DNA that is inherited at low but detectable rates can also manifest on single plants as genotypically distinct somatic sectors suggesting that even short-lived annual plants show IGH. The underlying mechanism responsible for generating this type of IGH remains unknown. In order to better understand this phenomenon I have tested the hypothesis that among genome changes that occur in response to stress, these putative triggers also up-regulate IGH. Metabolic stress, cold stress, mechanical damage and ROS exposure were examined. To test for IGH, transgene markers and polymorphic molecular markers were used. Also, presented in this thesis is work investigating the effect of in vitro propagation through tissue culture on IGH frequencies. Regenerated plants as well as undifferentiated callus tissue were genotyped and assayed for sequence reversions. Molecular genotyping revealed an outcome contrary to that predicted by the initial hypothesis showing instead that a high frequency of restoration occurred in the progeny of un-treated control plants. With the exception of samples passed through tissue culture, molecular marker changes, including single and double reversions of alleles, were detected in every line at some low level Furthermore, many of the revertants were found to be genetic mosaics. DNA sequence analyses revealed that sequences flanking three molecular markers that had undergone reversion were near identical to the great-grandparent of the sequenced individual. These results suggest that stress is perhaps an inhibitor of restoration. Although there may be other explanations for the results described in this thesis, the evidence implicates genome restoration as a mechanism for generating IGH.

The secretory pathway of plant cells consists of several organelles that are connected by vesicle and tubular transport. Every compartment has a distinct function and the specificity of vesicle fusion is essential to maintain the organelles identity. N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) play a crucial role in the secretory pathway driving specific vesicle fusions. A vesicle SNARE (v-SNARE) on a vesicle specifically interacts with two or three target SNAREs (t-SNAREs) on the target compartment. This event leads to vesicle membrane fusion with the membrane of the target compartment and the release of cargo molecules into the organelle lumen.<p> The aim of this work was the characterization of two <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> SNAREs. The first one is a v-SNARE, Bet11 that is the Arabidopsis ortholog of the yeast and mammal ER-Golgi v-SNARE, Bet1. In these organisms, Bet1 is involved in trafficking between the ER and Golgi apparatus. The second protein studied is a putative SNARE called Bet12 that shares high sequence identity with Bet11. In particular, I was interested in studying the sorting of these two proteins and their role in the secretory pathway of plant cells. By confocal laser microscopy, I demonstrated that these two proteins have different intracellular localization: Bet11 was mainly localized on the ER, Golgi stacks and punctate structures that I have identified as endosomes. Bet12 was localized only on the Golgi stacks. The identification of signal(s) involved in targeting of Bet11 and Bet12 were studied. To reach this aim I generated different mutant chimeras of Bet11 and Bet12. The co-expression of these chimeras with specific protein markers suggested that the distribution of these proteins was the result of a combined influence of multiple domains.<p> A serine in the Bet11 sequence was identified as a putative phosphorylation site and appeared important for proper Bet11 intracellular distribution.<p> The different intracellular distributions of Bet11 and Bet12 suggest different biological roles for the two proteins. To functionally characterize these two proteins homozygous knock-down mutants of Bet11 were screened. These plants had no evident phenotype, suggesting a possible genetic redundancy in this SNARE family.

The adverse effect of Cu on growth is apparent from the reduction in root length of the Cu-treated Arabidopsis roots. Arabidopsis seems to be more resistant to Cu in comparison with that of soybean in terms of root growth. The increase of the levels of H2O2 was observed in Cu-treated Arabidopsis roots. The lignin biosynthesis related enzymes, PODs and laccases were enhanced during the Cu treatments. The lignin contents slightly increased in Cu-treated Arabidopsis roots. To our surprise, the Arabidopsis can be tolerant to high concentration of Cu (200 &#x00B5;M), because only part of high levels of H2O2 accumulated in Cu-treated tissues are used by PODs to synthesize the lignin.

The adverse effect of Cd on growth is apparent from the reduction in root length of the Cd-treated Arabidopsis thaliana roots. The increase of the levels of H2O2 was observed in Cd-treated A. thaliana roots. The lignin biosynthesis related enzymes, POXs and laccases were enhanced during the Cd treatments. The lignin contents slightly increased in Cd-treated A. thaliana roots¡]48 h¡^. The A. thaliana can be tolerant to high concentration of Cd (500 &#x00B5;M), and only part of high levels of H2O2 accumulated in Cd-treated tissues are used by POXs to synthesize the lignin.

The adverse effect of Zn on growth is apparent from the reduction in root length of the Zn-treated Arabidopsis roots. The levels of H2O2 were increased rapidly in Zn-treated Arabidopsis roots. The lignin biosynthesis realated enzymes, peroxidases and laccases were enhanced during the Zn treatments. The lignin contents increased in Zn-treated Arabidopsis roots. Arabidopsis can be tolerant to high concentration of Zn (4 mM), because part of high levels of H2O2 accumulated in Zn-treated tissues are utilized by peroxidases to synthesize the lignin.

Telomerase is the key enzyme synthesizing telomeric DNA in most eukaryotic organisms. In mammals, telomerase expression is abundant in the germline cells but is undetectable in most other differentiated organs. Intensive studies of telomerase have focused on human cancerous cells, where over 90% of all cancerous tissues examined have telomerase activity. In wild-type Arabidopsis, telomerase expression is abundant in reproductive organs and dedifferentiated tissues such as flowers, siliques and calli but barely detectable in vegetative tissues (both rosette and cauline leaves). In this study, a biochemical screen strategy was developed for isolation of telomerase activating mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana. Through screening of Arabidopsis activation-tagged lines by a PCR-based TRAP assay, two tac (for telomerase activator) mutants were isolated. RT-PCR analysis of AtTERT expression revealed that different mechanisms are involved in alternating telomerase activity in tac1 and tac2. We cloned and characterized the TAC1 gene. TAC1 encodes a single zinc finger protein and acts synergistically with auxin to induce telomerase expression without altering cell cycles. Telomere length was unperturbed in the mutant, but other phenotypes, such as altered root development and the ability of cells to grow in culture without exogenous auxin, indicated that TAC1 not only is part of the previously reported link between auxin and telomerase expression, but also potentiates other classic responses to this phytohormone. DNA microarrays were used to analyze the expression profile of the tac1 mutant and revealed that several drought-induced genes were up-regulated 3 to 10 fold in the tac1-1D mutant. RT-PCR analysis further confirmed this up-regulation for five of these genes. Investigation of root growth also indicated that tac1-1D roots were ~20% longer relative to wild-type. Further experiments demonstrated that over-expression of TAC1 does confer drought tolerance, but not salt tolerance. In addition, our preliminary result showed that treatment with a low concentration of IAA could induce drought tolerance in wild-type Arabidopsis. Although plants with constitutive expression of telomerase have no practical utility, the ability of TAC1 to confer drought tolerance could have significant agricultural applications.

Thèse de doctorat : Biologie moléculaire et biochimie végétale : Strasbourg 1 : 2004. / Thèse soutenue sur un ensemble de travaux. Titre provenant de l'écran-titre. Bibliogr. 19 p.

Thèse de doctorat : Biologie moléculaire végétale : Strasbourg 1 : 2008. / Titre provenant de l'écran-titre. Bibliogr. p. 126-140.