Climate change is a global issue and the effects on fish populations remain largely unknown. It is thought that climate change could affect fish at all levels of biological organisation, from cellular, individual, population and community. This thesis has taken a holistic approach to examine the ways in which climate change could affect fish from both tropical, marine ecosystems (Great Barrier Reef, Australia) and temperate, freshwater ecosystems (non-tidal River Thames, Britain). Aerobic scope of coral reef fish tested on the Great Barrier Reef was significantly reduced by just a 2°C rise in water temperature (31, 32 and 33°C, compared to the current summer mean of 29°C) due to increased resting oxygen consumption and an inability to increase the maximal oxygen uptake. A 0.3 unit decline in pH, representative of ocean acidification, caused the same percentage loss in aerobic scope as did a 3°C warming. Interfamilial differences in ability to cope aerobically with warming waters will likely lead to changes in the community structure on coral reefs with damselfish replacing cardinalfish. Concerning Britain, there is evidence of gradual warming and increased rainfall in winter months over a 150 year period, suggesting that British fish are already experiencing climate change. It was evident from an analysis of a 15 year dataset on fish populations in the River Thames, that cyprinid species displayed a different pattern in biomass and density to all the non-cyprinid fish population, suggesting that there will be interfamilial differences in responses to climate change. Using a Biological Indicator Approach on the three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, a 2°C rise in water temperature resulted in a stress response at the cellular and whole organism level. A 6°C rise in temperature resulted in a stress response at the biochemical level (higher cortisol and glucose concentrations), cellular level (higher neutrophil: lymphocyte ratio) and whole organism level (higher ventilation rate and lowered condition factor, hepatosomatic index and growth). G. aculeatus is considered to be temperature tolerant; therefore these results indicate that climate change may prove to be stressful for more temperature-sensitive species. This study has demonstrated that climate change will have direct effects on fish populations, whether they are in temperate regions such as Britain or in tropical coral reefs, but with strong interfamilial differences in those responses.

This thesis examines Dickens's uses of images of the river throughout his fiction, and also in the early sketches, the reprinted pieces from Household Words and The Uncommercial Traveller. The river concerned is usually but not exclusively the Thames, usually but not exclusively in London. The thesis offers some practical evidence to account for the powerful influence of the Thames upon Dickens's imagination and shows how he conceives of it both within existing frames of reference and in some distinctively Dickensian ways. It considers how Dickens's representations of the river play into the cult of the picturesque which emerged at the end of the eighteenth century, and into the tradition which sees it as a symbolic conduit of the empire. It goes on to consider his use of the river as a boundary, the consequent importance of river crossings in his work, and his conception of the riparian space as a liminal one. It then explores a distinctive scheme of discourse which uses the river to represent rebellious forces beyond the control of human agency and shows how this reflects the sense of spiritual threat which is to be found in some of the other, albeit rare, depictions of nature to be found in his writing. It then shows how Dickens uses the river symbolically to express ideas about death and rebirth, together with the loss of and changes in identity, and how he draws on a scheme of distinctively Christian iconography to do so. Finally it shows how he uses it to create and represent an underworld for London, using tropes of epic founded on classical models. The thesis concludes that, in its use of natural forces to signify social ones, Dickens's writing about the river serves to amplify his conception of stratification in Victorian society and adds weight to the socially conservative political stance which is known to be present in his world view.

Automatic river quality monitoring (ARQM) is potentially an important tool in water quality management for the National Rivers Authority (NRA) and similar organisations worldwide. The information produced by ARQM systems must be used in the most effective way and fully integrated with the manual monitoring effort. The status and development of ARQM systems in the freshwater and estuarine River Thames catchment are discussed and a practical appraisal of the design, operation and maintenance requirements given. Data capture, verification and presentation methods are developed and the use of ARQM data for real time management and subsequent analysis is advocated. Examples of data from the freshwater ARQM system are given which emphasise the variability of freshwater quality and the need for a comprehensive understanding of the behaviour of rivers before management decisions are made. The use of ARQM data for assessing the compliance of rivers with River Quality Objectives is examined. With respect to the tidal Thames, data processing methods to correct for the tidal movement of the waterbody are developed. ARQM data are used to highlight the principal factors affecting the water quality of the tidal Thames. The importance of the use of ARQM information in the effective management of the tidal Thames is discussed and operational examples demonstrate how it may be utilised as a basis for management decisions. The application of ARQM to the sub-tropical environment of the River Ganges, India, is investigated. An ARQM system has been designed and prototypes are operational. Extensive site surveys were carried out and the water quality status of the Ganges is discussed. Recommendations for the improvement and future development of ARQM systems are made. The use of ARQM information and its potential for improving the management of rivers is discussed.

Due to environmental concerns, most of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been eliminated or reduced in production and use; however, due to their great persistency, POPs are expected still to be found in the environment long after their use has ceased. Although, in recent years, POPs have rarely been detected in river water in the United Kingdom (UK), their concentrations in fish (biota) and sediment are expected to be notable due to their lipophilicity and bioaccumulation; however, there is a lack of information and data to understand the current contamination of POPs in catchments and evaluate their potential risk to the environment and ecosystem. This thesis describes the application of mathematical modelling approaches to (i) predict the current distribution and concentration of POPs in catchments, (ii) evaluate the influence of climate change and extreme weather conditions on the fate of POPs, and (iii) provide guidelines to inform decision-making on managing the potential risks of POPs in river basins. The modelling studies have mainly focused on polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The River Thames catchment was chosen as the study area. The Fugacity level III model was initially used to describe the general distribution of PCBs between different compartments; it was predicted that the greatest mass of PCBs remain in the soil, but the fish and sediments represent compartments with the highest PCB concentrations. The contamination of PCBs in Thames fish was estimated to exceed the unrestricted consumption thresholds of 5.9 μg/kg for ∑PCBs set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); no current EU Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) are available for PCBs in fish. It was indicated that the PCBs in fish could be linked to PCB contamination in sediment, which was predicted to be about three times higher than the fish concentrations, but insufficient observed data of PCBs in Thames fish and sediment are available to validate the results. In order to address this limitation in observed data, fish and sediment sampling and chemical analysis were carried out for the presence of POPs. In addition to PCBs, the measured results for hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in Thames fish and sediment were assessed. Although the observed fish- and sediment concentrations of the chemicals appear quite variable, when normalised to organic carbon the levels in sediment, they were comparable to the fish lipid normalised concentrations. Using the temperature and rainfall data forecasts in the UK Climate Projections 2009 (UKCP09), climate change scenarios were established and assessed in the fugacity modelling. The modelling results suggested a modest influence of climate change on PCB fate over the next 80 years. The most significant result was a tendency, in the Thames catchment, for climate change to enhance the evaporation of PCBs from soil to air. While the fugacity model successfully simulated the distribution and fate of PCBs, we used greatly simplified representations of climate, hydrology and biogeochemical processes of the catchment: to have a deeper understanding, a newly developed dynamic hydrobiogeochemical transport model - the Integrated Catchment Contaminants model (INCAContaminants) was applied. Using additional information about weather, river flows and water chemistry, the INCA-Contaminants model provided new insights into the behaviour of contaminants in the catchment; this led to a better representation of PCB contamination in sediment. In addition, INCA demonstrated the important impact of short-term weather variation on PCB movement through the environment. It was shown that PCBs contamination in Thames sediment was greatly disturbed by the severe flooding that occurred in early 2014. This thesis presents the application of the INCA model to assess - in addition to POPs - the behaviour of metaldehyde in the River Thames catchment. Metaldehyde is a type of pesticide used mainly to kill snails and slugs. Its application in agricultural areas within the catchment area has in recent years caused severe problems with drinking water supply. The INCA model has proved to be an effective tool for simulating the transport of metaldehyde in the catchment, predicting observed metaldehyde concentrations at multiple locations in the River Thames; this is the first time that a dynamic modelling approach has been used to predict the behaviour of metaldehyde in river basins. Modelling results showed that high concentrations of metaldehyde in the river system are a direct consequence of excessive application rates. In this thesis, a simple decision-support tool was derived from modelling results, based on variable application rates and application areas. This decision-support tool is now being used by Thames Water to help control peak concentrations of metaldehyde at key water supply locations.

As políticas de saneamento e recursos hídricos nas grandes aglomerações urbanas brasileiras constituem-se, desde meados dos anos de 1960, em um grande desafio para os poderes públicos e a sociedade em geral. Tal é o caso da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP) na qual a riqueza gerada convive com problemas sociais e ambientais conhecidos, como a degradação dos principais corpos de água, em especial, o rio Tietê entre Mogi das Cruzes e Pirapora, gerando incômodos e algumas vezes protestos de setores da população. Esses protestos foram fundamentais para mobilizar os poderes públicos, à véspera da Conferência das Nações Unidas para o Meio Ambiente (CNUMAD) em 1992. A disponibilidade de recursos internacionais e o momento político possibilitaram a formulação de políticas e a realização de ações considerando aspectos sociais, ambientais e a participação pública, fatos inéditos até aquele momento. São desse período o lançamento do Programa de Despoluição do Tietê, com uma série de obras de controle de poluição e intervenções na macrodrenagem, os projetos de saneamento e recuperação dos corpos de água, como o Projeto Córrego Limpo e o Programa Mananciais e a implantação de estrutura institucional de gestão de recursos hídricos baseada em fóruns descentralizados regionais como os Comitês de Bacia Hidrográfica (CBH). Entretanto, após vinte e três anos de investimentos, aproximadamente 50 por cento da população metropolitana não dispõe de esgoto tratado (10 milhões de habitantes) e 11 por cento não dispõe de rede de coleta (dois milhões e duzentos mil habitantes). A situação das águas do rio Tietê, se tomado como indicador, ainda continua degradada no trecho metropolitano. Entre as diversas explicações sobre a situação apresentada estão aquelas que destacam o intenso crescimento demográfico e urbano industrial de uma grande metrópole, em região ambientalmente frágil, localizada nas cabeceiras dos principais formadores da bacia e a fragilidade institucional de suas políticas públicas. Baseado no contexto apresentado, a pesquisa enveredou por outros caminhos, menos explorados, visando ampliar o conhecimento dos desafios colocados. Primeiramente, avaliar os resultados do processo de implantação dos programas de controle da poluição hídrica, no período 1998 2013, que vai do encerramento da 1ª etapa do Projeto Tietê até a assinatura das obras da 3ª etapa. Em segundo lugar, comparar a estratégia utilizada na bacia do Alto Tietê com aquela adotada na Grande Londres para recuperar o rio Tâmisa, constantemente citado na literatura sobre o tema quando se discutem as dificuldades encontradas no caso paulista. A abordagem adotada partiu da realização de revisão bibliográfica com foco no processo de constituição da metrópole e na forma de apropriação de suas águas, fatores estratégicos na degradação da qualidade das águas do rio Tietê e seus afluentes. A seguir, dividiu-se a bacia do Alto Tietê em unidades criadas para esta pesquisa: os Compartimentos Sanitários Ambientais, baseados nas áreas de drenagem dos esgotos metropolitanos. Nessas unidades foram analisados os resultados dos programas de controle de poluição hídrica, as variações da cobertura da terra e da demografia. Os valores encontrados foram avaliados frente aos resultados das análises estatísticas de tendências espacial e temporal de dez variáveis de qualidade de água e de um estudo de caso sobre a relação entre aquelas e as variáveis hidrológicas. Os estudos de tendência foram precedidos de análises exploratórias, verificação de sua normalidade e sazonalidade por meio da utilização de estatísticas paramétricas e não paramétricas dos dados brutos da rede de monitoramento da CETESB com apoio de softwares estatísticos. As conclusões sobre as análises de tendências indicaram que houve melhorias nos valores de algumas das variáveis, em determinados trechos do Rio Tietê, e que esta melhora está relacionada com a ampliação do sistema de coleta e tratamento de esgotos. Os dados da experiência inglesa foram importantes para constatar que, embora ocorresse em época e contextos diferentes da experiência paulista, guarda com esta, aspectos comuns: localização em região ambientalmente crítica, intenso e rápido crescimento populacional e urbano-industrial. Por outro lado, a pesquisa identificou que a recuperação do Tâmisa na Grande Londres fornece lições importantes para nossa realidade: começa por coletar e afastar esgotos e progressivamente ampliar e aperfeiçoar o sistema de esgotamento sanitário. As ações executadas pelos ingleses desde o século XIX até meados do século XX, contaram com ativa participação dos órgãos públicos, dos institutos de pesquisa, e da sociedade em geral. A pesquisa constatou que, entre os desafios para a recuperação do rio Tietê na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, está o processo de implementação, operação e gestão do sistema de esgotamento sanitário, apesar da importância de vários fatores interferentes. Este sistema deve ser baseado em objetivos claros, ambiental e economicamente viáveis, socialmente monitorados, a fim de promover a participação dos municípios e fortalecer os vínculos entre os organismos públicos de saneamento e controle de poluição. As perspectivas, em que pese importância dos vários fatores interferentes, apontam para um caminho longo e dispendioso, mas também uma grande oportunidade, viável, para implementar através das ações estruturantes do setor de saneamento, uma metrópole mais sustentável. / Sanitation and water resources policies in major Brazilian urban agglomerations constitute since the mid-1960s, a great challenge for public authorities and society in general. Such is the case of the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo (MRSP) in which the generated wealth coexists with known social and environmental problems such as the degradation of the main bodies of water, in particular the Tiete River between Mogi das Cruzes and Pirapora, generating nuisances and sometimes protests from sectors of the population. These protests were instrumental in mobilizing public authorities, on the eve of the United Nations Conference on Environment (UNCED) in 1992. The availability of international funds and the political situation made possible the formulation of policies and carrying out actions considering social, environmental and public participation, unpublished facts so far. This period are the launch of the Tiete Restoration Program, with a series of pollution control works and interventions in the macro drainage, sanitation projects and restoration of water bodies, such as the project \"Clean Stream\" and the program \"Streams\" and the establishment of institutional framework for water management based on decentralized regional forums such as the River Basin Committees (CBH). However, after twenty-three years of investment, approximately 50 per cent of the metropolitan population has no treated sewage (10 million) and 11 per cent does not have collection network (two million two hundred thousand inhabitants). The situation of the waters of the river Tiete, if taken as an indicator, is still degraded in the metropolitan stretch. Among the various explanations of the situation presented are those that highlight the intense demographic and urban growth - a large industrial city in environmentally fragile region, located in the headwaters of the main tributaries of the basin and the institutional weakness of public policies. Based on the presented context, the research embarked on other paths, less explored, to enhance understanding of the challenges posed. First, evaluates the results of the water pollution control programs implementation, occurred in the period 1998 - 2013, which runs from the end of the 1st stage of the Tietê Project up to the signature of the works for its 3rd stage. Second, compares the strategy used in the Upper Tiete River basin with that, adopted in Greater London, to recover the Thames River, constantly quoted in the literature. The approach adopted started conducting literature review focused on the metropolis constitutional process and in the location of its waters bodies, strategic factors in the degradation of water quality of the Tiete River and its tributaries. Then it was divided the basin of the Upper Tiete in units created specifically for this research: the Environmental Health Compartments, based on the drainage areas of the metropolitan sewage system. In these units the results of water pollution control programs, changes in land cover and demography, were surveyed. The values were evaluated against the results of the spatial trends of statistical analysis and temporal ten water quality variables and a case study on the relationship between those and hydrological variables. The trend studies were preceded by exploratory analyzes, verifying normality and seasonality by using parametric and non-parametric statistics of raw data from the monitoring network CETESB to support statistical software The findings on trends analysis indicated that there were improvements in the values of some variables in certain stretches of the Tiete River, and this improvement is related to the expansion of the sewage recollection and treatment system. Data from the English experience were important to note that, although it was in time and in different contexts of the São Paulo experience, guard with this common features: location in environmentally critical region, intense and rapid population and urban-industrial growth. On the other hand, the survey found that the recovery of the Thames River in Greater London provides important lessons for our reality: initially collect and drain away the sewage and gradually expand the sewage system, and the actions taken had active participation of government agencies, the research institutions, and society. This action occurred from the nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. The survey found that among the challenges to recovery of the Tietê River in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the implementation process, operation and management of the sewage system, despite the importance of various interfering factors. This system should be based on clear goals, environmentally and economically feasible, socially monitored, in order to promote the involvement of municipalities and strengthening the linkages between sanitation and pollution control public bodies. Prospects, despite the importance of various interfering factors point to a long and costly way, but also a great opportunity, feasible, to implement through the structuring actions of the sanitation sector, a more sustainable metropolis.

As políticas de saneamento e recursos hídricos nas grandes aglomerações urbanas brasileiras constituem-se, desde meados dos anos de 1960, em um grande desafio para os poderes públicos e a sociedade em geral. Tal é o caso da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP) na qual a riqueza gerada convive com problemas sociais e ambientais conhecidos, como a degradação dos principais corpos de água, em especial, o rio Tietê entre Mogi das Cruzes e Pirapora, gerando incômodos e algumas vezes protestos de setores da população. Esses protestos foram fundamentais para mobilizar os poderes públicos, à véspera da Conferência das Nações Unidas para o Meio Ambiente (CNUMAD) em 1992. A disponibilidade de recursos internacionais e o momento político possibilitaram a formulação de políticas e a realização de ações considerando aspectos sociais, ambientais e a participação pública, fatos inéditos até aquele momento. São desse período o lançamento do Programa de Despoluição do Tietê, com uma série de obras de controle de poluição e intervenções na macrodrenagem, os projetos de saneamento e recuperação dos corpos de água, como o Projeto Córrego Limpo e o Programa Mananciais e a implantação de estrutura institucional de gestão de recursos hídricos baseada em fóruns descentralizados regionais como os Comitês de Bacia Hidrográfica (CBH). Entretanto, após vinte e três anos de investimentos, aproximadamente 50 por cento da população metropolitana não dispõe de esgoto tratado (10 milhões de habitantes) e 11 por cento não dispõe de rede de coleta (dois milhões e duzentos mil habitantes). A situação das águas do rio Tietê, se tomado como indicador, ainda continua degradada no trecho metropolitano. Entre as diversas explicações sobre a situação apresentada estão aquelas que destacam o intenso crescimento demográfico e urbano industrial de uma grande metrópole, em região ambientalmente frágil, localizada nas cabeceiras dos principais formadores da bacia e a fragilidade institucional de suas políticas públicas. Baseado no contexto apresentado, a pesquisa enveredou por outros caminhos, menos explorados, visando ampliar o conhecimento dos desafios colocados. Primeiramente, avaliar os resultados do processo de implantação dos programas de controle da poluição hídrica, no período 1998 2013, que vai do encerramento da 1ª etapa do Projeto Tietê até a assinatura das obras da 3ª etapa. Em segundo lugar, comparar a estratégia utilizada na bacia do Alto Tietê com aquela adotada na Grande Londres para recuperar o rio Tâmisa, constantemente citado na literatura sobre o tema quando se discutem as dificuldades encontradas no caso paulista. A abordagem adotada partiu da realização de revisão bibliográfica com foco no processo de constituição da metrópole e na forma de apropriação de suas águas, fatores estratégicos na degradação da qualidade das águas do rio Tietê e seus afluentes. A seguir, dividiu-se a bacia do Alto Tietê em unidades criadas para esta pesquisa: os Compartimentos Sanitários Ambientais, baseados nas áreas de drenagem dos esgotos metropolitanos. Nessas unidades foram analisados os resultados dos programas de controle de poluição hídrica, as variações da cobertura da terra e da demografia. Os valores encontrados foram avaliados frente aos resultados das análises estatísticas de tendências espacial e temporal de dez variáveis de qualidade de água e de um estudo de caso sobre a relação entre aquelas e as variáveis hidrológicas. Os estudos de tendência foram precedidos de análises exploratórias, verificação de sua normalidade e sazonalidade por meio da utilização de estatísticas paramétricas e não paramétricas dos dados brutos da rede de monitoramento da CETESB com apoio de softwares estatísticos. As conclusões sobre as análises de tendências indicaram que houve melhorias nos valores de algumas das variáveis, em determinados trechos do Rio Tietê, e que esta melhora está relacionada com a ampliação do sistema de coleta e tratamento de esgotos. Os dados da experiência inglesa foram importantes para constatar que, embora ocorresse em época e contextos diferentes da experiência paulista, guarda com esta, aspectos comuns: localização em região ambientalmente crítica, intenso e rápido crescimento populacional e urbano-industrial. Por outro lado, a pesquisa identificou que a recuperação do Tâmisa na Grande Londres fornece lições importantes para nossa realidade: começa por coletar e afastar esgotos e progressivamente ampliar e aperfeiçoar o sistema de esgotamento sanitário. As ações executadas pelos ingleses desde o século XIX até meados do século XX, contaram com ativa participação dos órgãos públicos, dos institutos de pesquisa, e da sociedade em geral. A pesquisa constatou que, entre os desafios para a recuperação do rio Tietê na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, está o processo de implementação, operação e gestão do sistema de esgotamento sanitário, apesar da importância de vários fatores interferentes. Este sistema deve ser baseado em objetivos claros, ambiental e economicamente viáveis, socialmente monitorados, a fim de promover a participação dos municípios e fortalecer os vínculos entre os organismos públicos de saneamento e controle de poluição. As perspectivas, em que pese importância dos vários fatores interferentes, apontam para um caminho longo e dispendioso, mas também uma grande oportunidade, viável, para implementar através das ações estruturantes do setor de saneamento, uma metrópole mais sustentável. / Sanitation and water resources policies in major Brazilian urban agglomerations constitute since the mid-1960s, a great challenge for public authorities and society in general. Such is the case of the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo (MRSP) in which the generated wealth coexists with known social and environmental problems such as the degradation of the main bodies of water, in particular the Tiete River between Mogi das Cruzes and Pirapora, generating nuisances and sometimes protests from sectors of the population. These protests were instrumental in mobilizing public authorities, on the eve of the United Nations Conference on Environment (UNCED) in 1992. The availability of international funds and the political situation made possible the formulation of policies and carrying out actions considering social, environmental and public participation, unpublished facts so far. This period are the launch of the Tiete Restoration Program, with a series of pollution control works and interventions in the macro drainage, sanitation projects and restoration of water bodies, such as the project \"Clean Stream\" and the program \"Streams\" and the establishment of institutional framework for water management based on decentralized regional forums such as the River Basin Committees (CBH). However, after twenty-three years of investment, approximately 50 per cent of the metropolitan population has no treated sewage (10 million) and 11 per cent does not have collection network (two million two hundred thousand inhabitants). The situation of the waters of the river Tiete, if taken as an indicator, is still degraded in the metropolitan stretch. Among the various explanations of the situation presented are those that highlight the intense demographic and urban growth - a large industrial city in environmentally fragile region, located in the headwaters of the main tributaries of the basin and the institutional weakness of public policies. Based on the presented context, the research embarked on other paths, less explored, to enhance understanding of the challenges posed. First, evaluates the results of the water pollution control programs implementation, occurred in the period 1998 - 2013, which runs from the end of the 1st stage of the Tietê Project up to the signature of the works for its 3rd stage. Second, compares the strategy used in the Upper Tiete River basin with that, adopted in Greater London, to recover the Thames River, constantly quoted in the literature. The approach adopted started conducting literature review focused on the metropolis constitutional process and in the location of its waters bodies, strategic factors in the degradation of water quality of the Tiete River and its tributaries. Then it was divided the basin of the Upper Tiete in units created specifically for this research: the Environmental Health Compartments, based on the drainage areas of the metropolitan sewage system. In these units the results of water pollution control programs, changes in land cover and demography, were surveyed. The values were evaluated against the results of the spatial trends of statistical analysis and temporal ten water quality variables and a case study on the relationship between those and hydrological variables. The trend studies were preceded by exploratory analyzes, verifying normality and seasonality by using parametric and non-parametric statistics of raw data from the monitoring network CETESB to support statistical software The findings on trends analysis indicated that there were improvements in the values of some variables in certain stretches of the Tiete River, and this improvement is related to the expansion of the sewage recollection and treatment system. Data from the English experience were important to note that, although it was in time and in different contexts of the São Paulo experience, guard with this common features: location in environmentally critical region, intense and rapid population and urban-industrial growth. On the other hand, the survey found that the recovery of the Thames River in Greater London provides important lessons for our reality: initially collect and drain away the sewage and gradually expand the sewage system, and the actions taken had active participation of government agencies, the research institutions, and society. This action occurred from the nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. The survey found that among the challenges to recovery of the Tietê River in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the implementation process, operation and management of the sewage system, despite the importance of various interfering factors. This system should be based on clear goals, environmentally and economically feasible, socially monitored, in order to promote the involvement of municipalities and strengthening the linkages between sanitation and pollution control public bodies. Prospects, despite the importance of various interfering factors point to a long and costly way, but also a great opportunity, feasible, to implement through the structuring actions of the sanitation sector, a more sustainable metropolis.

This thesis is an examination of the history of Salter Bros Ltd and the firms connected with it. Founded in 1858, it became not only one of the most important businesses associated with the recent history of the Upper Thames, but also a significant employer in Oxford. The study takes a thematic approach, which involves examining the five main areas of the firm’s commercial activities, which were: providing services for the sport of rowing (chapter 1), boat-building (chapter 2), boat-letting (chapter 3), passenger boat operating (chapter 4) and property development (chapter 5). This thesis draws on the firm’s archive, which has previously been unavailable to scholars. The mainly quantitative data from the archive is contextualised by reference to wider qualitative sources, although there is not always much comparative information to draw on. Finally, it focuses on the evolution of the workforce, which shows how the business managed to survive both the impact of the industrialisation of Oxford in the twentieth century and some of the challenges associated with family firms (chapter 6). By examining the areas shown above, the work sheds light on our understanding of (1) the socio-economic context of Oxford and the Thames, (2) the development of different forms of water-based leisure, and (3) how a family firm overcame some of the classic weaknesses of such businesses. Chapter 1 analyses the contribution that the firm made to the sport of rowing. The family moved to a riverside tavern in the mid-1830s and this resulted in heavy involvement with the rowing scene. They made a successful transition from professional oarsmen to successful racing boat-builders, which led to John and Stephen Salter moving to Oxford to start their own business in 1858. By exploiting the strong local rowing scene they built their firm up to be the market leader in the 1860s. Supplying craft for the Oxford and Cambridge (university) boat race was important for helping the business gain worldwide fame and, although Salters’ lost the ascendency in the 1870s, it provided a wide range of services for the sport until the second half of the twentieth century. It then slowly became divorced from the rowing scene and, despite a brief renaissance in the 1970s, the company finally bowed out of racing boat construction at the end of the 1980s. Chapter 2 explores the development of the boat-building side of the business. The firm was a major producer of craft and it was especially busy in the late 1920s and late 1970s, when new products helped to stimulate demand. By examining four areas of expertise (steel manufacturing, motorised boats, corporation craft and fibreglass construction) it becomes clear that the business was relatively slow to embrace new technology. Yet although it was not particularly innovative, Salters’ successfully exploited a number of emerging markets, like supplying craft for council-run boating lakes from the 1920s onwards. After a period of decline in the 1960s, the firm’s boat-building department was briefly revived by the introduction of fibreglass construction in the following decade, although this brought to an end skilled craftsmanship in the industry. Salters’ had to be flexible in order to survive, as is shown by the contract work it took on during the two World Wars, but in the second half of the twentieth century the firm’s focus moved away from boat-building towards providing leisure services. Chapter 3 examines the nature and timing of the rise of pleasure boating on the Thames and Salters’ role in promoting it. The railway destroyed much of the carrying trade on the river, but the waterway gained a new lease of life by the rise of leisure activities on it. Different types of boating were popular at different times and certain waterside locations were busier than others, but it is possible to discern short-term peaks in pleasure boating on the Upper Thames, as a whole, in the early 1890s and either side of the First World War (although the river became busier still after the Second World War). There were many factors contributing to the rise of leisure on the waterway, but Salters’ helped to popularise ‘the Thames trip’ between London and Oxford, which was linked to the growth of camping. The firm’s fortunes were also closely tied to the local market and by the late 1880s it had one of the largest fleets of rental craft in the country. Salters’ had to diversify according to changing fashions in pleasure boating, but after the 1920s there was a slow reduction in the number of craft it operated, until it stopped boat-letting altogether in the early 1990s – although this side of the business was revived a decade later, albeit on a smaller scale. Chapter 4 explores the firm’s involvement with passenger services on the waterway. The long-distance steamboat trips took much longer to become established on the Upper Thames, because of the logistical problems caused by having to pass through locks. Salters’ was the first business to make a success of running between Oxford and Kingston and it did this by forging a close association with the railway, which opened up the river to the day-trip market, and by building up its fleet to establish a monopoly over the long-distance journey. The service had to overcome many challenges, but one of the most serious problems it faced was the growth in pleasure boating after the Second World War. Although passenger numbers on the steamers peaked in the 1970s, general traffic on the river also reached record levels, which caused significant delays and forced the firm to end the through-service between Oxford and Kingston. Furthermore, by catering for the growing demand for shorter round trips Salters’ was drawn into direct competition with other companies that were already focused on this market. By the end of the twentieth century, the firm was no longer dominating the waterway and it was heavily reliant on income from both its home city of Oxford and private parties. Chapter 5 examines the extent and significance of the property the firm came to occupy. Salters’ acquired many new properties in order to expand the business and the firm’s success also enabled it to accumulate residential accommodation, which was part of the employment package offered to its staff, as well as being a source of rental income. The commercial sites were useful for preventing competitors from encroaching on the firm’s territory, whilst they were also subsequently used for further development. Most importantly, the property was a reservoir of capital that Salters’ relied upon in times of financial hardship. Chapter 6 focuses on how the workforce evolved in the twentieth century, which sheds light on how the business survived both the industrialisation of Oxford and some of the challenges associated with family firms. Salters’ went from being an employer with a highly skilled and local workforce to one that had fewer specialised craftsmen and which recruited mainly from outside the city. This was symptomatic of the city’s employment market that had been transformed by the motor industry in the interwar period, as well as the firm’s greater focus on its passenger boats, which was connected with it. Salters’ had to be flexible to accommodate the changes, but it was unable to compete with the high wages offered in the car factories and a shortage of local labour meant that it not only struggled to retain employees, particularly its skilled craftsmen, but standards of discipline also deteriorated. Nevertheless, the impact of wage competition was mitigated by the firm’s paternalism and the considerable appeal of working on the passenger boats. The latter offered an enjoyable lifestyle that was very different from the working environment of other waterway communities. The Salter family also played an important part in the survival of their company.