The research presented herein describes the coupling of acoustic and heat release fluctuations in a perfectly-premixed swirl-stabilized combustor by analysis of simultaneous high-repetition-rate laser diagnostics data. Nine cases are studied, varying the thermal power and the equivalence ratio. Proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) of the velocity data shows that cases with higher amplitude thermoacoustic oscillations have flow fields containing helical vortex cores (HVC); these cases are further analysed to determine the driving mechanisms of the oscillations. Flow and flame statistics are compiled as a function of both the phase in the thermoacoustic cycle and a phase representing the azimuthal position of the HVC relative to the measurement plane. These data are used to spatially map the thermoacoustic energy transfer field, as described by the Rayleigh integral. It is found that periodic deformations of the HVC cause large-scale flame motions, resulting in regions of positive and negative energy transfer.

The research presented herein describes the coupling of acoustic and heat release fluctuations in a perfectly-premixed swirl-stabilized combustor by analysis of simultaneous high-repetition-rate laser diagnostics data. Nine cases are studied, varying the thermal power and the equivalence ratio. Proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) of the velocity data shows that cases with higher amplitude thermoacoustic oscillations have flow fields containing helical vortex cores (HVC); these cases are further analysed to determine the driving mechanisms of the oscillations. Flow and flame statistics are compiled as a function of both the phase in the thermoacoustic cycle and a phase representing the azimuthal position of the HVC relative to the measurement plane. These data are used to spatially map the thermoacoustic energy transfer field, as described by the Rayleigh integral. It is found that periodic deformations of the HVC cause large-scale flame motions, resulting in regions of positive and negative energy transfer.

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This work presents novel formulations for models describing acoustically forced combustion in three disjoint regimes; highly turbulent, laminar, and the moderately turbulent flamelet regime. Particular emphasis is placed on simplification of the models to facilitate analytical solutions while still reflecting real phenomenology. Each derivation is treated by beginning with general reacting flow equations, identifying a small subset of physics thought to be dominant in the corresponding regime, and making appropriate simplifications. Each model is non-dimensionalized and both naturally occurring and popular dimensionless parameters are investigated. The well-stirred reactor (WSR) is used to characterize the highly turbulent regime. It is confirmed that, consistent with the regime to which it is ascribed for static predictions, the WSR is most appropriate to predict the dynamics of chemical kinetics. Both convection time and chemical time dynamics are derived as explicit closed-form functions of dimensionless quantities such as the Damk\"ohler number and several newly defined parameters. The plug-flow reactor (PFR) is applied to a laminar, burner stabilized flame, using a number of established approaches, but with new attention to developing simple albeit accurate expressions governing the flame's frequency response. The system is studied experimentally using a ceramic honeycomb burner, combusting a methane-air mixture, numerically using a nonlinear FEA solver, and analytically by exact solution of the simplified governing equations. Accurately capturing non-unity Lewis-number effects are essential to capturing both the static and the dynamic response of the flame. It is shown that the flame dynamics can be expressed solely in terms of static quantities. Finally, a Reynolds-averaged flamelet model is applied to a hypothetical burner stabilized flame with homogeneous, isotropic turbulence. Exact solution with a simplified turbulent reaction model parallels that of the plug flow reactor closely, demonstrating a relation between static quantities and the flame frequency response. Comparison with published experiments using considerably more complex flame geometries yields unexpected similarities in frequency scale, and phase behavior. The observed differences are attributed to specific physical phenomena that were deliberately omitted to simplify the model's derivation. / Ph. D.

This thesis describes the coincident prediction and observation of thermo-acoustic instabilities in a turbulent, swirl-stabilized research combustor using a stability model constructed from validated reduced-order component models. The component models included the acoustic response to flame heat release rate at various locations in the combustor, the turbulent diffusion of uneven fuel-air mixing, and the flame's response to perturbations in both inlet velocity and equivalence ratio. These elements are closed in a system-level model to reflect their natural dynamic coupling and assessed with linear stability criteria. The results include the empirical validation of each of the component models and limited validation of the total closed-loop model with a lean premixed gaseous fuel combustor not dissimilar to an industrial burner. The degree of agreement between the predictions and the measurements encourages the conclusion that the reduced-order technique described herein not only includes the relevant physics, but has characterized them with sufficient acuracy to be the basis for design techniques for the passive avoidance of thermo-acoustic instabilities. / Master of Science

LLean premixed combustion systems, attractive for low NOx performance, are inherently susceptible to thermo-acoustic instabilities - the interaction between unsteady heat release and excited acoustic wave effects. In the present work, a hybrid, coupled Large Eddy Simulation (LES) CFD approach is described, combining the computational efficiency of incompressible reacting LES with acoustic wave effects captured via an acoustic network model. A flamelet approach with an algebraic Flame Surface Density (FSD) combustion model was used. The ORACLES experiments - a perfectly premixed flame stabilised in a 3D sudden expansion - are used for validation. Simulations of the inert flow agree very well with experimental data, reproducing the measured amplitude and distribution of turbulent fluctuations as well as capturing the asymmetric mean flow. With reaction the measured data exhibit a plane wave acoustic mode at 50Hz. The influence of this plane wave must be incorporated into the LES calculation. Thus, a new approach to sensitise the incompressible LES CFD to acoustic waves is adopted. First an acoustic network model of the experimental geometry is analysed to predict the amplitude of the 50Hz mode just before the flame zone. This is then used to introduce a coherent plane wave at the LES inlet plane at the appropriate amplitude, unlike previous LES studies, which have adopted a "guess and adjust" approach. Incompressible LES predictions of this forced flow then show good agreement with measurements of mean and turbulent velocity, as well as for flame shape, with a considerable improvement relative to unforced simulations. To capitalise on the unsteady flame dynamics provided by LES, simulations with varying forcing amplitude were conducted and analysed. Amplitude dependent Flame Transfer Functions (FTFs) were extracted and fed into an acoustic network model. This allowed prediction of the stable/unstable nature of the flame at each forcing amplitude. An amplitude at which the flame changed from unstable to stable would be an indication that this coupled approach was capable of predicting a limit cycle behaviour. With the current simple FSD combustion model almost all cases studied showed a stable flame. Predictions showed considerable sensitivity to the value chosen for the combustion model parameter but specially to the acoustic geometric configuration and boundary conditions assumed showing evidence of limit cycle behaviour for some combinations. Nevertheless, further work is required to improve both combustion model and the accuracy of acoustic configuration and boundary condition specification.

The utilization of lean premixed combustors has become attractive to designers of industrial gas turbines as a means of meeting strict emissions standards without compromising efficiency.  Mixing the fuel and air prior to combustion allows for lower temperature flame zones, creating the potential for drastically reduced nitrous oxide emissions.  While effective, these systems are commonly plagued by combustion driven instabilities.  These instabilities produce large pressure and heat release rate fluctuations due to a resonant interaction between the combustor acoustics and the flame.  A primary feedback mechanism responsible for driving these systems is the propagation of Fuel/Air Ratio (FAR) fluctuations into the flame zone.  These fluctuations are formed inside of the premixing chamber when fuel is injected into and mixed with an oscillating air flow. The research presented here aimed to develop new technology for premixer designs, along with an application strategy, to avoid resonant thermo-acoustic events driven by FAR fluctuations.  A passive fuel control technique was selected for investigation and implementation. The selected technique utilized fuel injections at multiple, strategically placed axial locations to target and inhibit FAR fluctuations at the dominant resonant mode of the combustor.  The goal of this research was to provide an understanding of the mixing response inside a realistic premixer geometry and investigate the effectiveness of the proposed suppression technique. The mixing response was investigated under non-reacting flow conditions using a unique modular premixer.  The premixer incorporated variable axial fuel injection locations, as well as interchangeable mixing chamber geometries.  Two different chamber designs were tested: a simple annular chamber and one incorporating an axial swirler.  The mixing response of the simple annular geometry was well characterized, and it was found that multiple injections could be effectively configured to suppress the onset of an unstable event at very lean conditions. Energy dense flame zones produced at higher equivalence ratios, however, were found to be uncontrollable using this technique. Additionally, the mixing response of the swirl geometry was difficult to predict. This was found to be the result of large spatial gradients formed in the dynamic velocity field as acoustic waves passed through the swirl vanes. / Ph. D.

Les contraintes économiques, environnementales et sociétales de ces vingt dernières années notamment dans les domaines de l’énergie et des transports ont débouché sur le développement de nouvelles technologies faisant intervenir la combustion pauvre et prémélangée. Ce mode de combustion à partir d'un mélange homogène conduit à des températures de flamme plus faibles qui permettent de réduire les émissions d'oxydes d'azote tout en limitant la production d'oxydes de carbone. Pour autant, la combustion pauvre prémélangée présente le désavantage d’être sensible à toute forme de couplage notamment acoustique, menant à des instabilités de combustion. Ces instabilités sont largement étudiées, mais restent très difficiles à prévoir car elles font intervenir de nombreux phénomènes physiques multi-échelles. Dans la plupart des cas les oscillations résultent d’un couplage résonant entre la dynamique de la combustion et l’acoustique du système. Les conditions aux limites acoustiques du système déterminent la structure du champ de pression dans l’installation, ainsi que les flux acoustiques entrants et sortants. Malgré son importance, l’influence des conditions aux limites n’est pas toujours bien comprise et prise en compte et elle ne fait pas l’objet d’études systématiques. Les conditions aux limites acoustiques ne sont pas faciles à déterminer expérimentalement sur des configurations pratiques et leur contrôle est rarement envisagé. L’objectif de ce travail est donc de répondre à ce manque d’information, en étudiant sur un banc de combustion turbulente (CTRL-Z) l’influence de la condition acoustique d’entrée sur les oscillations de combustion auto-entretenues qui apparaissent dans la chambre de combustion. Un système de contrôle a été développé pour piloter l’impédance du système de prémélange de façon passive, sans modification des conditions de fonctionnement ou de la géométrie du brûleur. Ce système de contrôle d’impédance (ICS, « Impedance Control System ») s’appuie sur une utilisation de plaques perforées faiblement poreuses, au travers desquelles circule un écoulement. Un piston mobile permet de piloter la profondeur de la cavité résonante formée en amont des plaques, et ainsi de piloter leurs impédances. L’impédance de ces plaques perforées a été étudiée pour de faibles et de forts niveaux d’excitation acoustique, et un critère de transition entre les régimes linéaire et non-linéaire a été déterminé. L’ICS a été optimisé pour permettre un contrôle du module du coefficient de réflexion de 0 à 1 sur une large plage de fréquences (100 à 1000 Hz) et de niveaux d’amplitude de perturbations (100 à 150 dB) couvrant ainsi la gamme des instabilités thermoacoustiques classiques. L’ICS est utilisé pour contrôler l’impédance d’entrée du système de prémélange du banc CTRL-Z, en regard de la zone de combustion. L’analyse spectrale des fluctuations de pression et de dégagement de chaleur en fonction de l’impédance d’entrée démontre qu’il est possible d’obtenir un amortissement de l’instabilité principale pouvant atteindre 20 dB. Ces résultats sont confirmés par une estimation au premier ordre d’un bilan d’énergie acoustique prenant en compte le terme source dû à la combustion ainsi que les flux acoustiques en amont et aval de la zone de flamme. Ce bilan démontre par ailleurs l’importance du flux d’énergie transmis vers l’amont, du même ordre de grandeur que le terme source, et souligne la nécessité de prendre en compte ces flux pour déterminer correctement le taux de croissance de l’énergie. Finalement, une analyse acoustique de l'installation a été menée pour déterminer la nature des modes d'instabilités observés et pour examiner les conditions nécessaires au bon fonctionnement de l'ICS. / Combustion instabilities induced by a resonant flame-acoustic coupling are commonly observed in most applications of combustion from gas turbines to domestic or industrial boilers. These oscillations are detrimental by nature, and are still very difficult to predict at the design stage of a combustor. They imply numerous physical phenomena at multiple scales. They mainly result from a resonant coupling between the unsteady combustion and the acoustics of the system. The basic driving and coupling mechanisms have been extensively studied: acoustics in complex geometries and combustion dynamics of turbulent swirled flames are now reasonably well understood. However the effects of the acoustic boundary conditions on the system stability are less well documented, as they are not easy to access or to control in practical systems. They are however of prime importance as they determine the acoustic fluxes at the inlets and outlets of the combustor, as well as the preferential eigenfrequencies of the system. The main objective of this study is to investigate experimentally the influence of the inlet boundary condition of a generic turbulent burner on the observed self-sustained thermoacoustic oscillations. To carry out this investigation, a passive control solution has been developed. An innovative use of perforated panels with bias flow backed by tunable cavities allows to control the acoustic impedance at the inlet of a lean swirled-stabilized staged combustor (CTRL-Z facility). This impedance control system (ICS) has been initially designed and tested in a high load impedance tube. This facility also allowed to develop a robust impedance measurement technique, along with experimental protocols to measure acoustic velocities and fluxes. The acoustic response of perforates in both linear and nonlinear regimes was investigated as function of the plate porosity, bias flow velocity, back-cavity depth and incident pressure wave amplitude and frequency. The transition between the linear regime and the detrimental nonlinear regime has been linked to the perforates geometrical and operational parameters. As a result the ICS enables control of its acoustic reflection coefficient from 1 to 0 in a wide frequency range, 100 to 1000 Hz, for low and large incident pressure amplitudes (from 100 to 150 dB). The ICS, once implemented on the CTRL-Z facility, allowed to passively control the inlet boundary condition of the combustion rig. The impedance measurement technique was successfully used in harsh combustion situations, with high noise levels, to obtain in-situ measurements of the ICS impedance. Spectral analysis of the pressure and heat-release rate fluctuations demonstrated damping of the main self-sustained oscillation by up to 20 dB. A quantitative estimation of the acoustic energy balance was then obtained, highlighting the importance of the inlet acoustic flux. In this configuration, this term is of the same order of magnitude as the driving Rayleigh source term. Finally, an acoustic analysis of the combustion rig was led to determine the nature of the observed combustion instabilities modes and examine conditions required for an effective use of the ICS.

Les instabilités thermo-acoustiques causent des problèmes récurrents dans les chambres de combustion pour une large gamme d'applications industrielles, allant des chaudières domestiques aux turbines à gaz, en passant par les moteurs fusées. Ces phénomènes résultent d’un couplage résonant entre la dynamique de la combustion et les modes acoustiques du foyer, et peuvent donner lieu à de fortes vibrations, un vieillissement prématuré des composants de la chambre, voire des dommages structurels. Les mécanismes physiques mis en jeu sont complexes et difficiles à modéliser, ainsi les oscillations thermo-acoustiques ne sont pas facilement prévisibles au stade de la conception d’une chambre de combustion. Dans de nombreux foyers, des systèmes d’amortissement passifs sont installés pour augmenter la dissipation d’énergie acoustique et empêcher le développement de ces instabilités. Dans ce travail, des systèmes d’amortissement basés sur des plaques perforées couplées à une cavité résonante et traversées par un écoulement moyen sont analysés. Les principaux objectifs sont : (i) d’améliorer et de simplifier la conception de systèmes d’amortissement robustes en maximisant leurs propriétés d’absorption acoustique en régime linéaire, (ii) d’analyser l’effet de l’amplitude des ondes sonores incidentes sur la réponse acoustique des plaques perforées et (iii) de développer des modèles capables de reproduire cette réponse aux hautes amplitudes. Tout d’abord, deux régimes asymptotiques intéressants sont identifiés où le système fonctionne à faibles et forts nombres de Strouhal respectivement. Dans ces régimes la conception d’un système d’amortissement maximisant l’absorption acoustique est grandement simplifiée, puisque les calculs de la vitesse optimale de l’écoulement et de la taille de la cavité sont découplés. Il est démontré qu’à faible nombre de Strouhal le système se comporte comme un résonateur quart d’onde, et dispose d’une bande d’absorption très large. À fort nombre de Strouhal, le système fonctionne comme un résonateur de Helmholtz, comportant une cavité de taille plus réduite, mais une bande d’absorption beaucoup plus étroite que dans le régime précédent. Ces prévisions sont confirmées par des mesures réalisées dans les différents régimes identifiés sur un dispositif expérimental dédié. L’évolution des propriétés acoustiques d’une plaque perforée lorsque l’amplitude de forçage augmente est ensuite examinée par le biais de simulations directes. Il est montré que la transition du régime linéaire au régime non linéaire se produit lorsque l’amplitude de la vitesse acoustique dans l’orifice est comparable à la vitesse de l’écoulement moyen dans les trous. Pour des amplitudes élevées, une inversion périodique de l’écoulement est observée dans l’orifice. Des anneaux tourbillonnaires sont alternativement éjectés en amont et en aval de l’orifice à une vitesse de convection qui augmente avec l’amplitude de la perturbation acoustique. Ces mécanismes influencent profondément l’absorption acoustique des plaques perforées dans le régime non linéaire. Deux nouveaux modèles décrivant la réponse non linéaire de ces systèmes sont ensuite développés en exploitant la trajectoire des vortex (modèle VC), et une approche quasi-stationnaire (modèle IDF). Les prévisions de ces modèles sont confrontées à des mesures effectuées dans le tube à impédance et aux résultats de simulations directes. Les résultats obtenus au cours de ces travaux peuvent être utilisés pour guider la conception de systèmes d’absorption robustes, capables de fonctionner dans des environnements difficiles avec des niveaux sonores élevés, comme ceux rencontrés lors d’instabilités thermo-acoustiques. / Thermo-acoustic instabilities are of primary concern in combustion chambers for a wide range of industrial applications, from domestic boiler to gas turbines or rocket engines. They are the consequence of a resonant coupling between the flame dynamics and the acoustic modes of the combustor, and can result in strong vibrations, early aging of combustor components and structural damage. The physical mechanisms involved are complex and difficult to model, thus thermo-acoustic oscillations are not easily predictable at the design stage of a combustor. In many combustors, passive dampers are implemented to increase the acoustic energy dissipation of the system and to hinder detrimental flame-acoustics interactions. In the present work, passive damping systems based on perforated screens backed by a resonant cavity and traversed by a bias flow are investigated. The main objectives are: (i) to improve and simplify the design of these dampers by maximizing their acoustic absorption properties in the linear regime, (ii) to analyze the effect of the sound wave amplitude on the acoustic response of these systems and (iii) to develop models capable of capturing absorption at high oscillation amplitudes. First, two interesting asymptotic regimes are identified where the plate operates at low and high Strouhal numbers respectively. In these regimes the design of a damper maximizing absorption is greatly simplified, since the choice of the optimal bias flow velocity and back cavity size can be decoupled. It is shown that at low Strouhal numbers the damper behaves as a quarter-wave resonator, and features a wide absorption bandwidth. At high Strouhal numbers, the system operates as a Helmholtz resonator, featuring shorter optimal back cavity sizes but narrower absorption bandwidths. These predictions are compared to measurements in a dedicated experimental setup for the different operating regimes identified. The dependence of the acoustic properties of a perforated plate on the forcing amplitude is then examined by means of direct numerical simulations. It is shown that transition from linear to nonlinear regimes occurs when the acoustic velocity amplitude in the orifice is comparable to the mean bias flow velocity. At high amplitudes, periodic flow reversal is observed within the perforation, vortex rings are alternatively shed upstream and downstream of the hole and convected away at a velocity which is increasing with the forcing amplitude. These mechanisms greatly influence the acoustic absorption of the perforate in the nonlinear regime. Two novel models capturing this nonlinear response are then inferred based on an analysis of the vortex trajectory (VC model), and on a quasi-steady description of the flow (IDF model). Their predictions are finally compared to measurements conducted in an impedance tube, and to results from numerical simulations. The results obtained in this work can be used to ease the design of robust dampers capable of operating in harsh environments with high sound levels, such as those found during self-sustained thermo-acoustic instabilities.

Breast cancer is the No.1 prevalent new cancer in female cancer now. Compared to mastectomy (removing the entire breast), breast-conserving surgery (only removing cancerous tissue), has become the preferred treatment for its better cosmetic outcome and patient healthcare. However, it is challenging for surgeons to accurately locate the tumor and completely remove it during the surgery. Consequently, it leads to prolonged surgical time and inadequate tumor margins, which requires a second operation. Currently, the reoperation rate in the U.S. is as high as 25%. This is due to the lack of intraoperative tumor margin assessment and accurate breast tumor localization tools inside the operating room (OR), making current lumpectomy far from precise. My thesis work aims to achieve precision lumpectomy through development of photo- and thermo-acoustic imaging and sensing techniques. To fulfill the first unmet need of high-speed intraoperative assessment of breast tumor margins, we developed a compact multimodal ultrasound and bond-selective photoacoustic imaging system to image the entire excised tissue in just 10 minutes. The system was validated at hospitals with fresh lumpectomy specimens from 66 patients, and it achieved a sensitivity of 85.5% and specificity of 90%, showing its potential for high-speed and accurate intraoperative assessment of breast tumor margins. Next, we addressed the second unmet need of fast and accurate breast tumor localization in the OR through development of a fiber optoacoustic guide (FOG). It resembles the current metal guide wire but broadcasts MHz ultrasound omnidirectional via photoacoustic effect and can achieve sub-mm tumor localization. With an augmented reality system, the obtained tumor location was projected as an intuitive visual guidance to minimize the interference to surgical workflow and achieve optimal surgical planning. A surgeon successfully deployed the FOG to excise a “pseudo tumor” in a female human cadaver. Lastly, to improve the patient flow and logistics in clinics with a wireless breast tumor localization tool, we developed a resonant ring antenna that converts microwave into ultrasound to realize a wireless acoustic beacon. As a proof-of-concept, the ring antenna demonstrated over 3 orders of improvement in conversion efficiency than a common contrast agent for thermo-acoustic imaging. / 2021-08-30T00:00:00Z