Impaired endothelial vasomotor function is a hallmark of many chronic disease states, including essential hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Loss of the homeostatic role of the endothelium in large conduit arteries can contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular conditions in these vessels (e.g. stroke, atherosclerosis). A fundamental understanding of mechanisms controlling endothelial function in hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus is required for appropriate clinical strategies targeting the cardiovascular conditions associated with these diseases. The vast majority of basic science studies examining endothelial function in animal models of hypertension and type 2 diabetes have been conducted in males. Studying endothelial function in females is imperative for determining potential sex-specific mechanisms of dysfunction and thus appropriate therapeutic strategies. Thus the global purpose of this thesis is to identify and characterize the pathways controlling impaired vasomotor function in female animal models of two chronic disease states: hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis examine sex differences in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation (EDR) and vasocontraction (EDC) of aortic segments isolated from male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), a model of essential hypertension, as the animals age between 16 and 30 wk old. All endothelial vasomotor data presented in the Abstract are peak responses to 10⁻⁵ M acetylcholine. Endothelial vasomotor impairment is represented by lower EDR or by higher EDC. These present data confirmed well-established findings from the literature that 16 wk old male SHR exhibit endothelial vasomotor impairments (EDR: 77±4 %; EDC: 76±7 %) compared to normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY; EDR: 89±6 %; EDC: 59±8 %; p<0.05) controls, and that this impairment worsens with ageing in 30 wk male SHR (EDR: 63±2 %; EDC: 91±3 %; p<0.05). The observation that EDR was reduced in 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 76±4 %) compared to 16 wk counterparts (EDR: 101±2 %; p<0.05), however, was novel and interesting, as there were previously no reports of vasomotor responses in female SHR older than 19 wk. Moreover, the blunted EDR response of 30 wk female SHR approached the level of impairment exhibited by 30 wk male SHR (but was still slightly greater in females; p<0.05). The limited sex difference of the EDR within 30 wk SHR (males –13 % vs. females; p<0.05) contrasted that of 16 wk SHR (males –24 % vs. females; p<0.05), when the robust and unimpaired relaxation displayed by females was much greater than the significantly blunted response of males. Interestingly, endothelium-dependent contractions in quiescent rings were moderate and similar between 16 wk (EDC: 50±4 %) and 30 wk female SHR (EDC: 59±7 %; p=N/S) as compared to the greater contractions of males that were exacerbated with ageing (see above; p<0.05 both sex and ageing comparison). A major role has been established for the cyclooxygenase (COX)-1-thromboxane A₂/prostaglandin (TP) receptor pathway in the impaired endothelial vasomotor function of male SHR. Indeed, a similar mechanism appears to be responsible for the dysfunction observed in 30 wk female SHR in this thesis since robust endothelial function was restored in these animals with both antagonism of TP receptor (EDR: 111±2 %; EDC: 7±2 %; p<0.05) and preferential inhibition of COX-1 (EDR: 112±3 %; EDC: –5±3 %; p<0.05). In contrast, preferential inhibition of COX-2 only partially tempered endothelial impairments of 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 99±5 %; EDC: 27±3 %; p<0.05), suggesting that, similar to ageing male SHR, this isoform makes at most a secondary contribution to the dysfunction in 30 wk female SHR. Collectively, these data indicate that ageing female SHR exhibit a mechanism of endothelial impairment that is similar to that of male SHR and that is largely COX-1- and TP receptor-dependent. Chapter 4 examines the ability of chronic dietary administration of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), to ameliorate endothelial vasomotor function in adult male SHR with established hypertension. The impaired endothelial function of aortic segments isolated from adult male SHR (EDR: 48±6 %) was not improved following 10–12 wk of DHA feeding (EDR: 45±5 %; p=N/S). This finding was unexpected since it has been shown in the literature that feeding other n-3 PUFAs improves vasomotor responses in younger SHR, in which hypertension and its associated consequences are still developing. This is the first report of the effects of n-3 PUFA on endothelial vasomotor responses in adult SHR with established hypertension. These data suggest that dietary DHA do not improve vasomotor function in adult SHR. Chapter 5 examines α₁ adrenergic contraction and EDR of aortic segments isolated from 14 wk old female Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF), a genetic model of high fat diet-induced obesity and type 2 diabetes, and lean non-diabetic female Zucker Lean rats. Additionally, some ZDF received an 8 wk administration of anti-diabetic metformin drug therapy, aerobic exercise training, or a combination of the two. Maximal α₁ adrenergic contractions were over 2-fold higher in high fat-fed ZDF (1.69±0.16 g) compared to Lean (0.71±0.13 g; p<0.05). This elevation in ZDF was abolished by exercise training alone (1.02±0.17 g; p<0.05) but was not altered by metformin (1.56±0.19 g; p=N/S). In contrast to the severely impaired endothelial vasomotor function reported in male ZDF in the literature, robust EDR was observed in female ZDF (72±7 %) that was similar to Lean (75±6 %; p=N/S) and that was unaltered by exercise training (76±5 %; p=N/S) or metformin (76±6 %; p=N/S). These results indicate that enhanced α₁ adrenergic contraction is a mechanism of altered vasomotor function in female type 2 diabetic ZDF rats and that it could possibly be addressed by a chronic exercise training intervention. The main novelty of the thesis is the extension of the current understanding of endothelial vasomotor function to hypertensive and type 2 diabetic females. The knowledge gained from examining mechanisms involved in endothelial impairments in ageing hypertensive females and from testing the therapeutic potential of currently used anti-diabetic interventions in the type 2 diabetic female vasculature has interesting potential application. This basic scientific information could help direct clinical therapeutic strategies to target population-specific mechanisms of dysfunction. Understanding female sex-specific endothelial behaviour in patient populations is important for describing cardiovascular complications, defining mechanisms, and applying appropriate therapeutic targets. Findings from this thesis indicate a sex-dependence of the total divergence of endothelial function (e.g. female type 2 diabetic rats vs. male counterparts in the literature) and of the interaction of disease variables (e.g. age) and endothelial vasomotor responses.

Impaired endothelial vasomotor function is a hallmark of many chronic disease states, including essential hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Loss of the homeostatic role of the endothelium in large conduit arteries can contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular conditions in these vessels (e.g. stroke, atherosclerosis). A fundamental understanding of mechanisms controlling endothelial function in hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus is required for appropriate clinical strategies targeting the cardiovascular conditions associated with these diseases. The vast majority of basic science studies examining endothelial function in animal models of hypertension and type 2 diabetes have been conducted in males. Studying endothelial function in females is imperative for determining potential sex-specific mechanisms of dysfunction and thus appropriate therapeutic strategies. Thus the global purpose of this thesis is to identify and characterize the pathways controlling impaired vasomotor function in female animal models of two chronic disease states: hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis examine sex differences in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation (EDR) and vasocontraction (EDC) of aortic segments isolated from male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), a model of essential hypertension, as the animals age between 16 and 30 wk old. All endothelial vasomotor data presented in the Abstract are peak responses to 10⁻⁵ M acetylcholine. Endothelial vasomotor impairment is represented by lower EDR or by higher EDC. These present data confirmed well-established findings from the literature that 16 wk old male SHR exhibit endothelial vasomotor impairments (EDR: 77±4 %; EDC: 76±7 %) compared to normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY; EDR: 89±6 %; EDC: 59±8 %; p<0.05) controls, and that this impairment worsens with ageing in 30 wk male SHR (EDR: 63±2 %; EDC: 91±3 %; p<0.05). The observation that EDR was reduced in 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 76±4 %) compared to 16 wk counterparts (EDR: 101±2 %; p<0.05), however, was novel and interesting, as there were previously no reports of vasomotor responses in female SHR older than 19 wk. Moreover, the blunted EDR response of 30 wk female SHR approached the level of impairment exhibited by 30 wk male SHR (but was still slightly greater in females; p<0.05). The limited sex difference of the EDR within 30 wk SHR (males –13 % vs. females; p<0.05) contrasted that of 16 wk SHR (males –24 % vs. females; p<0.05), when the robust and unimpaired relaxation displayed by females was much greater than the significantly blunted response of males. Interestingly, endothelium-dependent contractions in quiescent rings were moderate and similar between 16 wk (EDC: 50±4 %) and 30 wk female SHR (EDC: 59±7 %; p=N/S) as compared to the greater contractions of males that were exacerbated with ageing (see above; p<0.05 both sex and ageing comparison). A major role has been established for the cyclooxygenase (COX)-1-thromboxane A₂/prostaglandin (TP) receptor pathway in the impaired endothelial vasomotor function of male SHR. Indeed, a similar mechanism appears to be responsible for the dysfunction observed in 30 wk female SHR in this thesis since robust endothelial function was restored in these animals with both antagonism of TP receptor (EDR: 111±2 %; EDC: 7±2 %; p<0.05) and preferential inhibition of COX-1 (EDR: 112±3 %; EDC: –5±3 %; p<0.05). In contrast, preferential inhibition of COX-2 only partially tempered endothelial impairments of 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 99±5 %; EDC: 27±3 %; p<0.05), suggesting that, similar to ageing male SHR, this isoform makes at most a secondary contribution to the dysfunction in 30 wk female SHR. Collectively, these data indicate that ageing female SHR exhibit a mechanism of endothelial impairment that is similar to that of male SHR and that is largely COX-1- and TP receptor-dependent. Chapter 4 examines the ability of chronic dietary administration of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), to ameliorate endothelial vasomotor function in adult male SHR with established hypertension. The impaired endothelial function of aortic segments isolated from adult male SHR (EDR: 48±6 %) was not improved following 10–12 wk of DHA feeding (EDR: 45±5 %; p=N/S). This finding was unexpected since it has been shown in the literature that feeding other n-3 PUFAs improves vasomotor responses in younger SHR, in which hypertension and its associated consequences are still developing. This is the first report of the effects of n-3 PUFA on endothelial vasomotor responses in adult SHR with established hypertension. These data suggest that dietary DHA do not improve vasomotor function in adult SHR. Chapter 5 examines α₁ adrenergic contraction and EDR of aortic segments isolated from 14 wk old female Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF), a genetic model of high fat diet-induced obesity and type 2 diabetes, and lean non-diabetic female Zucker Lean rats. Additionally, some ZDF received an 8 wk administration of anti-diabetic metformin drug therapy, aerobic exercise training, or a combination of the two. Maximal α₁ adrenergic contractions were over 2-fold higher in high fat-fed ZDF (1.69±0.16 g) compared to Lean (0.71±0.13 g; p<0.05). This elevation in ZDF was abolished by exercise training alone (1.02±0.17 g; p<0.05) but was not altered by metformin (1.56±0.19 g; p=N/S). In contrast to the severely impaired endothelial vasomotor function reported in male ZDF in the literature, robust EDR was observed in female ZDF (72±7 %) that was similar to Lean (75±6 %; p=N/S) and that was unaltered by exercise training (76±5 %; p=N/S) or metformin (76±6 %; p=N/S). These results indicate that enhanced α₁ adrenergic contraction is a mechanism of altered vasomotor function in female type 2 diabetic ZDF rats and that it could possibly be addressed by a chronic exercise training intervention. The main novelty of the thesis is the extension of the current understanding of endothelial vasomotor function to hypertensive and type 2 diabetic females. The knowledge gained from examining mechanisms involved in endothelial impairments in ageing hypertensive females and from testing the therapeutic potential of currently used anti-diabetic interventions in the type 2 diabetic female vasculature has interesting potential application. This basic scientific information could help direct clinical therapeutic strategies to target population-specific mechanisms of dysfunction. Understanding female sex-specific endothelial behaviour in patient populations is important for describing cardiovascular complications, defining mechanisms, and applying appropriate therapeutic targets. Findings from this thesis indicate a sex-dependence of the total divergence of endothelial function (e.g. female type 2 diabetic rats vs. male counterparts in the literature) and of the interaction of disease variables (e.g. age) and endothelial vasomotor responses.