Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Tigray region in northern Ethiopia is a historic centre of agricultural production and home to many subsistence farmers that still use traditional farming systems and practise rain-fed agriculture. The region has been affected adversely by famines and periodic droughts for centuries and is vulnerable to climate change. Farmers are producing on small plots of often degraded land and through their own actions have depleted the natural resources they rely on, in particular soil, water and trees. This study sought to explore the environmental degradation of Tigray through both a literature review of its agricultural socio-political history and a lived experience in the village of Abraha We Atsebaha among farmers of the region. It uses a variety of methodologies and methods, including a literature review, grounded theory, narrative inquiry and ethnography, to expand on the factors that have contributed to the current degradation, the implications for traditional farming and the potential for land regeneration. The first journal article seeks to explore how Ethiopians have shaped their natural environment. In particular, it focuses on deforestation, soil degradation, the role of changing governance and land-ownership patterns, and the effects of climate change. The article demonstrates that traditional farming systems do not operate in isolation from their socio-political and environmental context. The second journal article provides an in-depth narrative inquiry conducted in Abraha We Atsebaha over a three-month period in 2014. This village is known for its indigenous farming knowledge, commitment to regeneration and innovation in conservation practices. Interviews were conducted with selected farmers and local leaders and informal discussions were carried out with government extension representatives using the ethno-ecological cosmos-corpus-praxis guidelines to enable an integrated exploration of the nature of traditional farming, the causative factors of environmental deterioration and the resultant communal response. In addition to written interview notes, observations and field notes were recorded daily. Photographs are used to give a real sense of the community and their work. It emerged during this process that underlying belief systems were exceptionally important in a context of traditional conservation. Both articles discuss the development work undertaken by government in the rural farming sector and the successes and challenges faced. They also show that elements of traditional farming, sustainability measures and environmental care were suspended in favour of short-term survival as a consequence of social, political and population stressors. This study provides learning points, gained from insights gleaned from the literature review and the lived experience, for improving development interventions in this region. This study did not explicitly explore the role of religion in conservation or the potential long-term effects of current government policies and initiatives. However, it contributes to the small pool of literature on the region focused on traditional farming systems by providing a comprehensive overview of the drivers of degradation (historical and current) and offers a unique, “soft” experiential narration of a village in northern Ethiopia that allows insight into farmer experiences, pressures and adaptation efforts. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Tigray-streek in die noorde van Ethiopië is ’n historiese sentrum van landbouproduksie en die tuiste van menige bestaansboer wat nog op tradisionele boerderystelsels en reënbesproeiing staatmaak. Die streek het eeue lank onder hongersnood en periodieke droogtes gebuk gegaan en is kwesbaar vir klimaatsverandering. Boere bewerk klein stukke, dikwels afgetakelde, grond en het deur hul eie optrede die natuurlike hulpbronne waarop hulle staatmaak – veral die grond, water en bome – uitgeput. Hierdie studie was daarop toegespits om ’n beter begrip te vorm van die omgewingsaftakeling in Tigray. Vir hierdie doel is ’n literatuurstudie van die sosiopolitieke landbougeskiedenis van die gebied onderneem, en is die lewe in die dorp Abraha We Atsebaha tussen boere van die streek ervaar. Die navorsing het van ’n verskeidenheid metodologieë en metodes, waaronder ’n literatuuroorsig, gegronde teorie, narratiewe ondersoek en etnografie, gebruik gemaak om lig te werp op die faktore wat tot die huidige aftakeling bygedra het, die implikasies vir tradisionele boerdery, en die potensiaal vir grondvernuwing. Die eerste tydskrifartikel verken hoe Ethiopiërs hul natuurlike omgewing gevorm het. Dit konsentreer veral op ontbossing, grondaftakeling, die rol van veranderende staatsbestuurs- en grondbesitpatrone, en die uitwerking van klimaatsverandering. Die artikel toon dat tradisionele boerderystelsels nie afsonderlik van hul sosiopolitieke en omgewingskonteks funksioneer nie. Die tweede tydskrifartikel beskryf ’n narratiewe diepte-ondersoek wat oor ’n drie maande lange tydperk in 2014 in Abraha We Atsebaha onderneem is. Hierdie dorp is bekend vir sy inheemse landboukennis, toewyding aan vernuwing, en innoverende bewaringspraktyke. Onderhoude is met ’n uitgesoekte groep boere en plaaslike leiers gevoer, en voorligtingsbeamptes van die staat is by informele gesprekke betrek. Die etno-ekologiese cosmos-corpus-praxis-riglyne is gebruik om ’n geïntegreerde studie te onderneem van die aard van tradisionele boerdery, die oorsaaklike faktore van omgewingsaftakeling, en die gevolglike gemeenskapsreaksie. Benewens skriftelike aantekeninge gedurende die onderhoude, is waarnemings en veldnotas ook daagliks opgeteken. Foto’s word gebruik om die gemeenskap en hul werk getrou uit te beeld. Gedurende hierdie proses het aan die lig gekom dat onderliggende oortuigingstelsels besonder belangrik is in ’n tradisionele bewaringskonteks. Albei artikels bespreek die ontwikkelingswerk wat die regering in die landelike boerderysektor onderneem, sowel as die suksesse en uitdagings daarvan. Dit toon ook dat elemente van tradisionele boerdery, volhoubaarheidsmaatreëls en omgewingsorg as gevolg van maatskaplike, politieke en bevolkingsfaktore laat vaar is ten gunste van korttermynoorlewing. Die insigte wat uit die literatuuroorsig sowel as die lewenservaring in die bestudeerde gemeenskap spruit, bied lesse vir die verbetering van ontwikkelingsintervensies in die streek. Die studie het nie uitdruklik die rol van godsdiens in bewaring of die potensiële langtermynuitwerking van huidige staatsbeleide en -inisiatiewe ondersoek nie. Tog dra dit by tot die klein hoeveelheid beskikbare literatuur oor tradisionele boerderystelsels in die streek deur ’n omvattende oorsig te bied van die (historiese en huidige) snellers van aftakeling, en vertel dit ’n unieke, ‘sagte’ ervaringsverhaal oor ’n dorp in die noorde van Ethiopië om sodoende insig in landbou-ervarings, -druk en -aanpassingspogings te bied.

This study is based on a survey of over 900 respondents living in Tigray, Ethiopia and is intended to assist the Ethiopian government as well as other interested parties in analyzing the factors affecting the incidence of malaria in Tigray and those affecting people's choice of health care provider. / Two models were designed to answer these two questions. The first was a multinomial logit model in which socio-economic indicators were related to the incidence of malaria. The second model was specified as a conditional logit model aimed at determining people's choice between seeking treatment at a hospital/clinic or at a pharmacy/community health worker. / Economic development is the key to eradication of the major parasitic diseases, particularly malaria. An interesting result was obtained on the gender of the respondent; women in Tigray are less likely to report having had malaria than men. / Education level was found to be positively correlated with the likelihood of choosing the Hospital/Clinic option over the Pharmacy/Community Health Worker. / The Hospital/Clinic option was less likely to be chosen with increasing cost of treatment. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

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Economic and political reforms have been introduced in Ethiopia and these have boosted private investment over the last two decades. Reforms have brought about measurable improvements, but the progress of the status of private investment has remained slow. This study was conducted with the objective of investigating the microeconomic level determinants of private investment in the manufacturing sector. These micro-level determinants of private investment in the State of Tigray, Ethiopia, were analysed using both descriptive and econometric methods. Thus, an econometric method of data analysis using a duration model was applied to analyse the microeconomic data collected. In addition, descriptive analysis was employed to analyse the survey data. Here, a chi-square test and factor analysis were used to analyse the relationship between variables and their constraints on the operations of the manufacturing sector. The major microeconomic determinants of private investment status in the State of Tigray were found to be investment areas, access to credit, infrastructure facilities, the judicial system, corruption, investment incentives and bureaucratic red tape. The econometric result revealed that infrastructure facilities, the judicial system, and investment areas negatively and significantly delayed the entire private investment status. However, interest rates and investment location were positively and significantly supported to continue their status of the entire private investors in the manufacturing sector. Infrastructure facilities, investment incentives, and investment areas were negatively and significantly related to the started group of investors’ progress. However, investment location was related positively and significantly to the started group and the ability of the implementation and operation statuses of private investors to proceed to operation status. In the case of the non-started group, infrastructure facilities and investment areas are related significantly and negatively to investment status delay. By contrast, interest rates and investment location significantly and positively affect private investment status delay. According to the descriptive analysis, access to credit, bureaucratic red tape and corruption were the additional major factors that hinder private investment from progressing from one xii status to the next. The investor’s level of education, access to land and political instability risks in the survey were not determinants of private investment status. In addition, the survey of private investors for those who have already started production shows that infrastructural, technological, and economic and financial factors have the highest absolute value of the loading factors that hinders operations in the manufacturing sector. The results of this study revealed that most of the problems encountered in the manufacturing sector were institutional but some were related to the private investors themselves. Thus, the government should take measures to establish a true, independent and efficient institution so as to create access to credit and provide infrastructure facilities to the private sector. This could be done by minimising corruption and ensuring transparent investment regulations. Thus, the State of Tigray, Ethiopia, must attract and encourage private investors by applying and improving policies which promote private investment. In this way they will actively contribute to the overall development and growth of the Ethiopian economy. Finally, as this study is made on the causes of delay in each phases of investment, it contributes a new knowledge to all investment sectors in the developing countries as whole and particularly to all regions of Ethiopia for advanced polices and strategies development on investment decisions. Then, based on the results of the study and solving these identified problems of investment phases, all actors of investment can retain and encourage the existing and attract new private investors to enhance the economic development of the society. The findings from this study have important implications for prospective business owners, lenders, and policy makers on how to improve private investment and create conducive business environment. / Business Management / D.B.L.

This study investigates the factors affecting agricultural production of farm households in the National Regional State of Tigray, Ethiopia. The major primary sources of data for the study were farm household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The study revealed that the annual average crop production of respondents was found to be below the standard annual food requirement recommended by the international organizations. The proportion of irrigated land to total cultivated land was only 11per cent. The proportion of irrigated land in the two districts is lower than 11.27 per cent at the regional level. The utilization of chemical fertilizers for the majority of the respondents was below the recommended standard for the region. Although the farmers were interested in using improved seeds, the supplied varieties were not based on their preferences. Extension agents were mainly engaged in activities which were not related to their professions. The farm income model result showed that landholding size (p<0.0001), possession of oxen(p<0.0001), amount of fertilizer(p=0.010), improved seeds(p=0.002), irrigation(p=0.028), soil quality(p=0.019), village distance to the district market(p=0.066), average distance of plots from the homestead (p=0.023) and crop rotation(p=0.016) were determinant variables. Farmers were engaged in off-farm activities to fulfill the cash requirements in credit constrained conditions. The laws of the region do not allow farmers to be out of their localities for more than two years and the farmerswere restricted to renting out only half of their land. This discouraged farmers from off-farm participation for fear of land confiscation. In the Probit model, the determinant variables of off-farm participation were: irrigation (p=0.001), age (p=0.007), amount of money borrowed (p=0.078), village distance to the wereda market (p=0.055), fear of land confiscation (p=0.023) and access to electricity (p=0.044). It is recommended that if farmers are to use chemical fertilizers, they should be supplied with High Yielding Varieties (HYV)and enough water through access to irrigation. Furthermore, farmers should be allowed to have long term off-farm employment to augment the farming sector. / Development Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

The small enterprise has become a major sphere of interest for policy makers and donors. Despite the institutional and policy support, these enterprises have fallen short of expectations. This study is intended to fill the gap by exploring the challenges and prospects of the entrepreneurs in the small enterprise in general and specifically rate the challenges across each sector in Mekelle and Adigrat, Tigray Regional State of Ethiopia. Generally, 154 samples of the small enterprise were selected using a stratified proportional random sampling technique, from which the required data were generated and analysed employing the descriptive and exploratory research design. In the first part, the characteristics and prospects of the entrepreneurs and the small enterprise are presented. The finding reveals that the gender of the entrepreneurs is dominated by and is in favour of male entrepreneurs when compared to that of their female counterparts. The majority of respondents lack the relevant experiences and operate as sole proprietors. Furthermore, business plan is found out to be used only to meet the requirements of the financial institutions. The result also revealed that small enterprises are operated mainly by the owners of the business themselves and hence their contributions to employment and income generation for others is very limited. Financial constraint is found out as a general challenge to entrepreneurs of the small enterprises. In addition, different constraints such as training, access to finance, market opportunities, policy and legal measures are examined and rated across different business types where each factors are found to affect small enterprises at a different rates. What is severe problem for one sector is found out to be not a problem when compared to other sectors. These imply that policies and support programs need to take in to account the heterogeneous nature of enterprises and entrepreneurs. Overall, the result discloses a high failure rate of the small enterprises in the study sites and one can conclude that there is a lack of innovation from the side of entrepreneurs and a weak support from the government and other supporting institutions. In view of these, the researcher recommends an innovative support schemes to ameliorate and accelerate the growth of the small enterprises. / Development Studies / D. Phil. (Development Studies)

This study investigates the factors affecting agricultural production of farm households in the National Regional State of Tigray, Ethiopia. The major primary sources of data for the study were farm household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The study revealed that the annual average crop production of respondents was found to be below the standard annual food requirement recommended by the international organizations. The proportion of irrigated land to total cultivated land was only 11per cent. The proportion of irrigated land in the two districts is lower than 11.27 per cent at the regional level. The utilization of chemical fertilizers for the majority of the respondents was below the recommended standard for the region. Although the farmers were interested in using improved seeds, the supplied varieties were not based on their preferences. Extension agents were mainly engaged in activities which were not related to their professions. The farm income model result showed that landholding size (p<0.0001), possession of oxen(p<0.0001), amount of fertilizer(p=0.010), improved seeds(p=0.002), irrigation(p=0.028), soil quality(p=0.019), village distance to the district market(p=0.066), average distance of plots from the homestead (p=0.023) and crop rotation(p=0.016) were determinant variables. Farmers were engaged in off-farm activities to fulfill the cash requirements in credit constrained conditions. The laws of the region do not allow farmers to be out of their localities for more than two years and the farmerswere restricted to renting out only half of their land. This discouraged farmers from off-farm participation for fear of land confiscation. In the Probit model, the determinant variables of off-farm participation were: irrigation (p=0.001), age (p=0.007), amount of money borrowed (p=0.078), village distance to the wereda market (p=0.055), fear of land confiscation (p=0.023) and access to electricity (p=0.044). It is recommended that if farmers are to use chemical fertilizers, they should be supplied with High Yielding Varieties (HYV)and enough water through access to irrigation. Furthermore, farmers should be allowed to have long term off-farm employment to augment the farming sector. / Development Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

The small enterprise has become a major sphere of interest for policy makers and donors. Despite the institutional and policy support, these enterprises have fallen short of expectations. This study is intended to fill the gap by exploring the challenges and prospects of the entrepreneurs in the small enterprise in general and specifically rate the challenges across each sector in Mekelle and Adigrat, Tigray Regional State of Ethiopia. Generally, 154 samples of the small enterprise were selected using a stratified proportional random sampling technique, from which the required data were generated and analysed employing the descriptive and exploratory research design. In the first part, the characteristics and prospects of the entrepreneurs and the small enterprise are presented. The finding reveals that the gender of the entrepreneurs is dominated by and is in favour of male entrepreneurs when compared to that of their female counterparts. The majority of respondents lack the relevant experiences and operate as sole proprietors. Furthermore, business plan is found out to be used only to meet the requirements of the financial institutions. The result also revealed that small enterprises are operated mainly by the owners of the business themselves and hence their contributions to employment and income generation for others is very limited. Financial constraint is found out as a general challenge to entrepreneurs of the small enterprises. In addition, different constraints such as training, access to finance, market opportunities, policy and legal measures are examined and rated across different business types where each factors are found to affect small enterprises at a different rates. What is severe problem for one sector is found out to be not a problem when compared to other sectors. These imply that policies and support programs need to take in to account the heterogeneous nature of enterprises and entrepreneurs. Overall, the result discloses a high failure rate of the small enterprises in the study sites and one can conclude that there is a lack of innovation from the side of entrepreneurs and a weak support from the government and other supporting institutions. In view of these, the researcher recommends an innovative support schemes to ameliorate and accelerate the growth of the small enterprises. / Development Studies / D. Phil. (Development Studies)

Text in English / This study aimed at exploring Barriers to compliance with exclusive breastfeeding and timely introduction of complementary feeding practices in Ofla District, Tigray Region in Ethiopia. A quantitative exploratory descriptive study was conducted to explore and describe the barriers that restrict mothers /caregivers to comply with exclusive breast feeding practice until six months and with introduction of solid, semi-solid and soft foods at six months in Ofla District. Data were collected using structured questionnaire, from a total of 112 samples of which 75 mothers and care givers with children aged 0-5 months and 38 children aged 6-8 months participated. The data were entered into a computer and analysed though the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The findings revealed that there are barriers related Doer mothers and Non-Doer mothers perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, perceived self-efficacy, cues for actions, perceived social acceptability and positive and negative attitudes towards exclusive breastfeeding and initiation of complementary feeding. On the other hand, the participant’s perception of both groups with regard to perception of Divine (God’s) Will on two child feeding practices was insignificantly the same. Both groups perceived that children could get sometimes malnourished because of spiritual or supernatural causes. / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)

The overall aim of the research described in this thesis was to evaluate the effect of vitamin A supplementation on respiratory health, assessed by lung function in children aged 6--9 years. It comprises three studies. / The first study determined the magnitude of vitamin A deficiency in the target population in Wukro wereda, Northern Ethiopia. Of the 1339 eligible children identified by house to house surveys, 824 had complete data for vitamin A indicators and anthropometry. Xerophthalmia was detected in 5.8% of the children, 8.4% had serum retinol levels <0.35 mumol/L and 51.1% between 0.35--0.70 mumol/L. Liver vitamin A reserve was also found to be low in 41.0% of the children using the Modified Relative Dose Response (MRDR) and in about 85% of the children, the daily vitamin A intake was below the FAO/WHO basal requirement (<250 RE/day). / The second study found that in comparison with children with adequate vitamin A reserve (MRDR < 0.06), those with low reserve (MRDR &ge; 0.06) had forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) 48.8 ml (p = 0.006) lower when unadjusted, 23.1 ml (p = 0.04) when partially adjusted for age, gender and height and 14.1 ml (p = 0.20) when fully adjusted for demographic, general health, lung function and household related characteristics. / The third study describes the results of a randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate the impact of vitamin A supplementation on respiratory health as assessed by change in FEV1 at 4 months. The average change was 53.3 ml (n = 496) and 53.8 ml (n = 501) in the vitamin A and placebo groups respectively. After adjusting for baseline covariates, the difference between them was -3.6 ml (95%CI: -21.6, 14.4). In sub-analysis of the data, gender and vitamin A status subcategories were found to be effect modifiers. / In conclusion, high dose vitamin A supplementation did not show an effect on change in FEV1 at 4 months in children aged 6--9 years with high prevalence of vitamin A deficiency. Sub-analysis findings suggest that the benefits to vitamin A intervention in the study setting can probably be achieved if the other nutritional deficiencies such as zinc are addressed. Moreover, the results also suggest that the effects of vitamin A supplementation on respiratory health status are complex and these need to be taken into account in future studies to assess the clinical and public health implications of vitamin A supplementation in this age group.