Thesis (Ph.D.)--Michigan State University. Family and Child Ecology, 2008. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on July 7, 2009) Includes bibliographical references (p. 123-132). Also issued in print.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 1998. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [81]-85).

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2006. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains viii, 97 p. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 49-55).

Background: The first five years of life, called the early years is a period of rapid and vital physical, behavioural, emotional and social development. Physical activity (PA) is one of the behaviours which develop during the early years, and high levels of PA during the early years have been shown to be related to multiple health outcomes. The importance of PA of young children (children during the early years) has been highlighted by a number of national governments. In order to better inform future interventions and public health policies, a greater understanding of the correlates and determinants of young children s PA is vital. Previous research has been limited through measurement inconsistencies, and few studies have been conducted within multi-ethnic communities, where many young children in the United Kingdom are born. Thesis Aims: 1) to systematically review published research in order to establish currently known correlates and determinants of PA in the early years and identify gaps within the literature. 2) Calculate an accelerometer wear-time criteria to reliably measure young children s habitual PA. 3) Investigate the validity and test re-test reliability of a new parental proxy reported PA questionnaire. 4) Investigate the levels and correlates of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) in toddlers (1-3 year olds) from a predominately bi-ethnic and bi-linguistic population. Methods: Aim 1) nine electronic databases were searched to identify previous research which investigated associations between an exposure/variable, and a quantitative measure of PA. Correlates/determinants of total PA (TPA), MVPA and light-intensity PA (LPA) were reported using an ecologic model. Aim 2) to calculate a wear-time criteria for young children a simple stepped process was used whereby statistical tests were run to determine the minimum length of wear for one day, if there were any differences between weekdays and weekend days, and the presence of reactivity. Intra-class correlation models and the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula were used to calculate wear-time reliability. Aim 3) this study was undertaken by 196 parents completing a proxy report questionnaire on their child s PA and sedentary behaviour after seven days of their young child (mean age 3.2 ,SD: 0.8 years) wearing an accelerometer. A total of 156 (79.6%) questionnaires were completed in English and 40 (20.4%) were completed in transliterated Urdu. Of the 196 parents, 109 parents completed the EY-PAQ a second time seven days apart from the first EY-PAQ completion; this was to assess test re-test reliability of MVPA and sedentary time. Validity analysis used all data and data falling with specific proportion boundaries for MVPA (2%-41%) and sedentary time (30%-94%). Reliability was assessed using intra-class correlations (ICC) and validity by Bland Altman plots and rank correlation coefficients. Aim 4) this study was undertaken by conducting a cross-sectional analysis using 24 month olds and their mothers data collected as part of the Born in Bradford (BiB) birth cohort sub-sample study called BiB1000. The outcome variable was daily minutes of MVPA measured by the EY-PAQ. Numerous independent variables covering the layers of an ecological model were selected. Univariate linear regression models accounting for sex, age, language and season were conducted to examine the differences between White British and South Asian children s daily minutes of MVPA and each of the EY-PAQ s domains, and the proportion of time spent in MVPA within each of the EY-PAQ s domains. A series of univariate linear regression analyses were performed to examine and identify correlates of MVPA (for the whole sample, and separately for White British and South Asian children). Significant variables found in univariate analyses were then included in hierarchical multivariable regression models (based upon the ecological model), in order to examine the percentage of variance accounted for in daily minutes of MVPA. Results: Aim 1) The systematic review identified a large volume of published research. All studies took place in high income countries and few studies (6%) were of high quality. A small number of correlates and determinants of TPA were identified. The only correlate of MVPA was sex and no determinants of MVPA or LPA were found. PA correlates/ determinants were relatively consistent between objective and subjective PA measures and few studies investigated correlates of toddlers or between children with White and South Asian ethnicity. Aim 2) No differences in accelerometer-determined time in TPA, MVPA or sedentary time were observed between weekdays and weekend days within this sample of young children. Similarly, there was no evidence of reactivity to accelerometer use. For young children living in Bradford, an accelerometer wear-time of a minimum of six hours on any three days was shown to provide reliable estimates of accelerometer-determined time in TPA, MVPA, and sedentary time. Aim 3) The test re-test reliability of the EY-PAQ was moderate for sedentary time and fair for MVPA. The EY-PAQ had poor agreement with accelerometry with both sedentary time and MVPA before the application of boundaries. Post application of boundaries the EY-PAQ still had poor agreement with accelerometer-determined sedentary time but good agreement for MVPA. Limits of agreement were wide for all variables and language and ethnicity did not confound results. Aim 4) Bradford toddlers were found to be very active and no difference was observed between proxy-reported time spent in MVPA between White British and South Asian children. However, White British toddlers were found to have spent significantly more time in reported MVPA while walking for transport compared to South Asian toddlers; while South Asian toddlers reportedly spent significantly more time of MVPA in the home compared to White British toddlers. Correlate models were only statistically significant when multi-layers of the ecological model were included; and correlates differed for South Asian and White British children. Conclusions: There is a need for more high-quality studies exploring correlates/determinants across all layers of the ecologic model, and research investigating MVPA correlates/determinants of toddlers and between ethnicities is sparse. The work reported within this thesis has produced a reliable wear-time criterion for use to estimate accelerometer-determined PA and sedentary time in young children living in a bi-ethnic community. This criterion can now be used in future accelerometer studies (validation, observational and intervention) and the stepped-process offers researchers a method to derive sample-specific wear time criteria. The EY-PAQ is a promising habitual population-level measure of young children s MVPA from a bi-ethnic community. In situations when objective methods are not possible for measurement of young children s MVPA, the EY-PAQ may be a suitable alternative. Levels of toddlers MVPA did not differ by ethnicity but the contexts and correlates did. Therefore, future interventions should seek to maintain and maximise high levels of toddlers MVPA and tailor interventions by ethnicity. The research conducted within this thesis will inform the development of surveillance systems, interventions and public health polices to improve young children s PA levels, particularly children living in a bi-ethnic community.

The aim of this study was to develop a Gestalt programme for parents of toddlers to empower them to contribute to the optimal development of their toddlers. Intervention research (Thomas & Rothman) as phase model was used as method for this study. During the first phase the managers or heads of three day-care centres were used to gain access to parents of toddlers. Parents were asked to complete a questionnaire with the objective to explore their attitude towards aspects such as communication with their toddlers, emotions of their toddlers and their disciplinary style. The questionnaire was also used to determine their needs with regard to the education of their toddlers. During the second phase a literature study was undertaken to explore the development of the toddler and the dynamics of the Gestalt approach. The Gestalt approach was used as cornerstone for the programme because of its holistic approach to the interaction between persons and the environment on all levels. This study concludes at Phase 4 by designing a prototype Gestalt programme for parents of toddlers. / Social Work / M. Diac (Play Therapy)

xix, 176 p. : ill. A print copy of this thesis is available through the UO Libraries. Search the library catalog for the location and call number. / Self-efficacy, a proposed vulnerability for anxiety, is thought to be rooted in repeated experiences during children's early years. Few studies have directly examined how these beliefs and behavior patterns are manifested in early childhood despite the importance of infancy and toddlerhood as times of major cognitive, behavioral, and regulatory developments that may play a role in the etiology of psychopathology. Thus a primary goal of this dissertation was describing early self-efficacy, measured as a child's behavioral responses and coping capacity during an impossible task. Factor analyses identified a latent self-efficacy construct based on children's observed task persistence, strategies used during the task, and flexible use of strategies. Through a growth model analytic framework this construct was used to examine individual differences in toddler self-efficacy. A linear growth model demonstrated excellent fit and decreasing self-efficacy over time, as well as significant variability in toddlers' initial responses and behavioral trajectories across an impossible task. An additional aim of this dissertation was to identify important predictors and concomitants of toddler self-efficacy at 17 months. Using a structural equation model, paths between self-efficacy and maternal psychopathology, maternal behavior, infant temperament and social-emotional correlates were examined. Analysis of theorized predictors revealed greater maternal anxiety at 17 months was predictive of lower self-efficacy and increased social-emotional problems. Greater maternal acceptance, responsiveness, and non-intrusiveness during infancy were associated with greater self-efficacy and lower symptoms at 17 months, demonstrating a longitudinal impact of maternal behavior a year later. However, early self-efficacy demonstrated limited associations with toddlers, social-emotional problems. As such, maternal psychopathology and maternal sensitivity appeared to be important predictors of children's elevated symptoms and self-efficacy even at this early age despite nominal direct associations between children's self-efficacy and symptomatology. Results demonstrated a multi-faceted construct of self-efficacy in toddlers, encompassing both persistence and coping abilities. This early self-efficacy measurement expanded definitions of efficacy and measured self-efficacy in a younger population than has previously been studied. Early variations in self-efficacy linked to maternal sensitivity during infancy and maternal anxiety indicate the importance of longitudinal associations between risk factors and toddler outcomes for understanding self-efficacy. Clinical implications for assessment and prevention are considered. / Committee in charge: Jeffrey Measelle, Chairperson, Psychology; Jennifer Ablow, Member, Psychology; Dare Baldwin, Member, Psychology; Jane Squires, Outside Member, Special Education and Clinical Sciences

Previous research has investigated the effects of daycare on infants, though little attention has been given to the emotional impact of this work on their caregivers. Attachment theory has influenced the approach to infant daycare, leading many programs to adopt a primary caregiving system in order to respond effectively to the needs of the infant. Babies become attached to caregivers and in turn caregivers become attached to the babies. This study explored the implications of such attachments. Naturalistic inquiry made the web of relationships surrounding infant/toddler caregivers apparent. In conversational interviews, caregivers spoke deeply of the complexities and demands of their work with babies and their families. Their voices were eloquent, thoughtful and reflective. The data consist of lengthy initial interviews, follow-up conversations, and observations. The researcher's own education and experience informed the data gathering and interpretation. Seven caregivers in four different centres were interviewed. Each had her Under Age Three Certificate and worked in a licensed centre. Each of these centres used some degree of primary caregiving. The interviews were informal, based on a list of questions used to encourage conversation and narrative. Observations offered an opportunity to understand the context of each caregiver and prompt further conversation. Analysis was a process of analyzing the interviews for themes and ideas in light of the observations. The picture that emerged illustrates the complexity inherent in the work of caring for babies. Caregivers spoke of their relationships as sources of satisfaction and frustration. In a dynamic, ongoing process of engaging with babies, families, co-workers, and selves, caregivers must negotiate these multiple relationships using skills of empathy and thoughtfulness. The Early Childhood Education and Care literature discusses toddlers' struggle with separation anxieties. Not well articulated in the literature, but evident in the data, is the grief of the caregivers. Each woman spoke of her own sadness at the loss of her relationship with a baby or toddler when that child left the centre. Relationship with all its intensity and tensions was central to the professional experience of these women. Each of the four most experienced caregivers accented a different aspect of caregiving: a) the sensual aspects of caring for babies, b) the intellectual possibilities of caregiving, c) caring as a spiritual practice, and d) the need for attentive care for one's self. The particular centre and context of each caregiver influenced the care she provided; without a supportive environment it is difficult to provide respectful and responsive care. The participants discussed the need for adequate time to establish and maintain relationships; time was also necessary to meet and discuss concerns. Caregivers needed time for reflection to keep multiple perspectives in mind. Time is an important and often scarce resource for caregivers. Caregiving is a web of relationships. This research was reflective of and ethically responsive to the caregiving relationship. Paying attention to the multiple pulls experienced as an insider, I used trust, respect, responsiveness, and responsibility to guide the research process. Two women, whom I called peer reviewers and who had both worked in the field, but were now a step removed, discussed with me general topics raised by the interviews and listened for the "ring of truth". Listening to the seldom heard voices of the caregivers and their emphasis on the process of building and maintaining relationships suggests possible directions for supervision of centres, guidelines for Early Childhood Education and Care education, and development of licensing policies. The caregivers' focus on relationship challenges the centrality of child development in the organization of practice. Supporting, honouring, and building on caregivers' connections with the babies in their care, the families, the staff, and with themselves will enhance the practice of infant and toddler care. / Graduate

Discursive power relations that enclose the field of early childhood have functioned to construct the idea of the “normal” child, a process of silencing that limits spaces of “being” for children in classrooms. Relatedly, constructions of the “good” early childhood teacher are shaped by dominant discourses of child development that define “best” and “appropriate” practices in accordance with children’s developmental “needs.” In this study, I take up feminist poststructural theories in self-reflexive examination of my teaching practice with toddlers to allow for alternate ways of seeing the “child,” and therefore, the “teacher.” In laying bare the child and teacher as discursively constructed, complexities of classroom subjects become visible and possibilities for new ways of doing “teacher” emerge when we work to destabilize the hegemonic “truths” of the field. Using feminist poststructural theories to shape a narrative teacher research methodology, this study employs ethnographic and narrative methods in self-reflexive analysis of my own teaching practice. Working with data produced during one semester in the classroom, I interrogate my daily practices and understandings of “toddler,” teaching, learning, development, and research in order to displace dominant ways of understanding “toddler” and “toddler teacher.” The possibilities for teaching toddlers have been constrained by intersecting discourses of development, readiness, neoliberalism, and gender as development and progress are prioritized while the widespread assumption that early childhood is “women’s work” (Grumet, 1988) shapes the roles and statuses of teachers who work with our youngest children. The discoveries and new knowledges I have constructed through this work have exposed, challenged, and reimagined positionings of the teacher. From the gendered “care” work assumed to come naturally to women, to the technical practice based on a foundation of developmental knowledge, to the policing of children in classrooms, this study offers examinations of relations of power that may enable teachers and children to position themselves differently in classrooms, within and beyond existing discourses.

In the United States, most of the Family, Friend, and Neighbor providers are the grandmothers of the child in care. Parental preference for Family, Friend, and Neighbor (FFN) care for infants and toddlers is consistent across race, class, and ethnicity. Although FFN providers care for the largest number of infants and toddlers in the United States, they are not considered part of the childcare milieu. This exclusion means FFN providers are not, typically, the recipient of important childcare information and resources as formal childcare providers who provide care to the smallest number of infants and toddlers. 
The small number of studies on Family, Friend, and Neighbor (FFN) care often refers to these providers as "invisible." It is in direct response to this sense of invisibility that this study is presented. Using a phenomenological methodology to bring forward the essence of FFN care, this study hopes to broaden the Field of Early Care and Education to include this group of diverse providers of care to young children. Instead of policy makers, funders, and early childhood professional development systems viewing "childcare" exclusively as formal and regulated this study serves to challenge this limited perspective by offering a richer perspective.

One critical objective of high-quality education is to provide citizens literate in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) to ensure economic success (as reported by Newcombe (Harnessing spatial thinking to support STEM learning (OECD Education Working Papers, No. 161), OECD Publishing, Paris, 2017). Many studies have found a correlation between STEM skills and spatial ability. A meta-analysis of studies (as reported by Hawes et al. (in Davis (ed), Spatial reasoning in the early years: Principles, assertions, and speculations, Routledge, New York, 2015) reported that interventions to teach spatial skills resulted in significant improvement, approximately doubling the number of people with spatial skills associated with being an engineer. Most educational programs lack a focus on spatial skills, especially in early years when children are developing their spatial sense of the world and building a foundation for later, more complex, spatial skills. Little research exists showing what young children do when allowed to explore materials with little or no adult direction. This qualitative study was designed to address that gap and provide evidence of spatial skills in young children, specifically toddlers (12–36 months old). A variety of common household materials were set out during free play time, and educators provided minimal guidance while children played. Trained videographers recorded for 10 h (twice a week for 1 h over a 5-week period). Video was open coded for spatial actions children displayed with the materials. The initial codes were then reviewed for common themes and compared to those found in previous studies. Results show that toddlers demonstrated a wide range of spatial skills without educator direction and stayed engaged for long periods of time. Based on these results, implications are presented for educators to support spatial development.