Osteoblasts and osteoclasts are crucial to maintaining bone homeostasis. These specialized cells rely on various environmental signals and cross talk from one another in order to model, remodel and repair bone. Exogenous chemicals such as the therapeutic drug rosiglitazone, a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) agonist, can interfere with bone-forming and bone-resorbing pathways, causing osteoporosis and increasing the risk of bone fracture. Evidence is emerging that environmental toxicants induce similar toxic endpoints in bone, both through PPARγ-dependent and PPARγ-independent mechanisms. To date, these toxicants have only ever been considered in isolation or in limited co-exposure studies. This comprehensive review relating these toxicants and their effect on bone health will help guide future studies and illuminate gaps in our knowledge. Five toxicant classes (organotins—mainly tributyltin; TBT, heavy metals—lead, cadmium, and arsenic, dioxin-like chemicals, phthalates, and perfluoroalkyl compounds; PFAs) were examined, with emphasis on molecular targets, osteoclast- and osteoblast-specific effects, animal models and epidemiological data. It was concluded that organotins (TBT) act via PPARγ and RXR agonism, phthalates act via PPARγ agonism, heavy metals act at least through ERK-mediated pathways, and dioxin-like chemicals act through aryl hydrocarbon receptor interaction. The molecular targets of PFAs remain unknown. Additional targets are still being investigated. These findings emphasize the importance of co-exposures, as these toxicants act through diverse molecular mechanisms that may share toxic endpoints, making co-exposure consequences particularly severe. While the evidence available strongly suggests that lead, cadmium, and dioxin-like chemicals are negative modulators of human bone health, evidence supporting this conclusion for organotins, phthalates, arsenic, and PFAs is somewhat lacking. There are still significant gaps in our understanding that must be filled to gain a holistic understanding of these threats to human bone health.

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is among the most common water contaminant in the United States and around the world. It is estimated that between 9% and 34% of all drinking water sources contain some TCE. The EPA set a drinking water standard for TCE at 5 parts per billion (ppb) in 1989, however since this date, many studies have shown TCE is dangerous to the health of adults and unborn children, even at low-level exposures. These studies reveal exposure to TCE can cause multi-organ damage, especially for the kidney, liver, reproductive and development systems. We investigated how TCE can effect embryonic heart development by identifing possible target mechanisms changing after exposure. Acute and chronic exposure to rat cardiomyocytes produced altered calcium flow and significant changes with TCE doses as low as 10ppb. Embryonic carcinoma cells, rat cardiomyocytes and fetal heart tissue all showed global changes in gene expression after low-dose TCE exposure, including critical ion channels that drive calcium flux. High levels of folic acid supplementation in combination with 10ppb TCE exposure in maternal diets caused significant genetic modifications in mRNA expression levels of Day 10 embryonic mouse cardiac tissue. We also found both high and low folate maternal diets leads to similar phenotypic outcomes in embryo development.

Bone is a dynamic tissue, where bone forming osteoblasts and bone resorbing osteoclasts maintain homeostasis. Research into bone toxicology has largely focused on pharmaceutical side effects adversely affecting bone development. However, many environmental toxicants can regulate bone homeostasis. Recently, the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) has emerged as an important target of environmental toxicants. PPARγ dimerizes with the retinoid-X receptor alpha (RXRα), is a central transcription factor in adipogenesis, and in bone can transdifferentiate osteoblasts into adipocytes by suppressing osteogenic pathways. The central hypothesis of this dissertation is that environmental chemicals can adversely affect bone homeostasis by activating nuclear receptors in bone cells – particularly osteoblasts and osteoclasts – to perturb cellular differentiation and function. Three study aims were developed to test and refine this hypothesis. First, a set of structurally diverse environmental PPARγ agonists were individually applied to mouse primary bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cell cultures undergoing osteogenic differentiation. In vitro PPARγ ligand treatment suppressed osteogenesis and stimulated adipogenesis. Organotin compounds (tributyltin, triphenyltin) in particular more efficaciously suppressed osteogenesis. The second aim characterized the effects of in vivo tributyltin exposure on bone microarchitecture in female C57Bl/6 mice. Tributyltin exposure resulted in a thinner cortical bone, but significantly increased trabecular mineralization. Further analyses suggested that tributyltin did not suppress osteoclast numbers but rather changed osteoclast function, minimally attenuating the resorptive function and enhancing their ability to generate osteogenesis-stimulating factors. Furthermore, tributyltin activated not only PPARγ, but also RXR and liver X receptors. The third aim established the utility of Generalized Concentration Addition in modeling PPARγ activation by mixtures of full and partial PPARγ agonists. A complex mixture of multiple phthalate compounds activated an in vitro PPARγ reporter assay, and the individual dose-responses of each compound were used to construct modeled responses. The comparisons of empirical data and model predictions supported the use of Generalized Concentration Addition in modeling a complex mixture of environmental PPARγ agonists. Together, these studies support and establish important toxicological mechanisms related to PPARγ and RXRα activation in different aspects of bone biology and provide a basis for studying mixture effects of PPARγ agonists.

This thesis reports on the combined effects of toxicants and physicochemical factors on micro-organisms. The main objective of the project was to use multi-sensing systems such as mediated and non-mediated sensor systems, growth tests and physicochemical sensors to investigate novel stressor-toxicant-assay combinations. Screen-printed, disposable, developmental-phase, physicochemical sensor constructs (conductivity and dissolved oxygen) were validated under conditions compatible with microbial bioassays, to ascertain their potential role in toxicity testing. The conductivity sensor construct could be used to indirectly inform on the osmolality of the test samples, but the dissolved oxygen sensor construct was not found to give reproducible results. The results were thought to be compromised by in-house screen-printing using a complex carbon ink formulation for the working electrode. Escherichia coli and a consortium with ammonia oxidation capacity (CAOC) were used as the test species for the bioassays. The combined effects of four inorganic salts (NaCl, NaN03, KCl and KN03) and two toxicants (3,5-DCP and HgCh) on E. coli were investigated using the CellSense™ biosensor system, Clark oxygen electrode and microtitre plate growth assays. A variety of trends were observed with each salt-toxicantbioassay combination, emphasising a need for better understanding of the assay media and factors such as bioavailability, to interpret the toxicity data. The results also suggested the importance of using multiple bioassays with varied end points, for toxicity testing. The CAOC, which was isolated from the activated sludge, was tested for physicochemical stressor and toxicant effects using the mediated biosensors. The results were very different from those obtained with E. coli, indicating that each species reacts to toxicants and changes in physicochemical factors differently. Although the full potential of disposable, physicochemical sensors, at the point of toxicity testing was not achieved, the study did investigate previously uncharacterised, combined effects of salts and toxicants on microbial cells. It highlighted the need for development of hybrid systems and also offered a route towards integration of physicochemical and biological sensing systems for simultaneous monitoring of both environmental and biological elements.

Maternal behaviours are those that increase offspring survival. Estrogens affect maternal behaviour by activating Estrogen Receptors (ER) in the brain. Maternal brain plasticity was explored by characterizing the effects of exposure to a mixture of environmental pollutants on number of ERs. Following exposure to the toxicants during pregnancy and lactation, brains of female rats were collected, sectioned at 30 μm and immunohistochemistry for ERα performed. Immuno-positive cells in the mPOA, VTA and NAc were counted. A two way ANOVA revealed no main effect of Treatment on the number of immunopositive cells for all three brain regions. However, a significant difference between the High and Low Doses with the high dose reducing the number of ERα+ cells in the mPOA and VTA. Our work showcases the importance of studying the effects of multiple chemical co-exposures on the mother's brain, as maternal brain changes impact maternal behaviour consequently affecting offspring neurodevelopment.

No description available.

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDC) are exogenous agents that mimic endogenous hormone activity in the body. EDC exposure during the critical period of neonatal development can potentially cause life-long neurological, behavioural and physiological disease. This thesis focuses on the EDC Bisphenol A (BPA), a synthetic xenoestrogen widely prevalent in everyday materials that has significant environmental relevance given its ubiquitous presence in humans around the world. The central research question of my thesis is: Does perinatal exposure to BPA affect rat pup development? A rodent model was selected to study the effects of BPA on the adrenal component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) stress pathway, which has not been extensively studied. Rat dams were divided into five groups (vehicle control (VEH), positive control diethylstilbestrol (DES), BPA 5, BPA 50 and BPA 500 μg/kg bw/day) and dosed daily throughout gestation and for four days of lactation. Rat pups were sacrificed at two time-points at the beginning and the end of the stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP), at postnatal day (PND) 5 and PND 15. Changes in three morphometric parameters (bodyweight, crown-rump (CR) length and anogenital distance (AGD) were assessed based on the factors of Treatment and Sex. Adrenal gland glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and 18SrRNA expression was determined by qPCR in male pups at PND 5 and PND 15. At PND 5, compared to the VEH group, the BPA 50 pups were significantly heavier (ANOVA, Dunnett’s post-hoc) and the DES and BPA 50 pups had significantly longer CR lengths (ANOVA, Dunnetts’ post-hoc). At PND 15, xenoestrogen treatment significantly influenced CR length (ANOVA). At both time-points, males had significantly longer AGD than females, as physiologically expected (ANOVA). Adrenal gland GR expression in male pups was not significantly affected by treatment, but there was an effect of treatment in18SrRNA gene expression at PND 5 (Kruskal-Wallis). Using the Ct method to determine GR and 18SrRNA fold changes, we cautiously suggest that our experimental doses resulted in a non-monotonic dose response to BPA in the PND 5 animals and a monotonic dose response to BPA exposure in the PND 15 animals. This study highly values the importance of investigating the effects of environmentally relevant, low dose BPA exposure during the critical window of development, given the little that is known about potentially permanent alterations to the stress pathway due to exposure during this delicate period of development.

Extensive use of the organophosphate diazinon has led to its accumulation in aquatic environments and negative effects on fish health. Most studies focus on the effects of short term exposure to high levels of organophosphate pesticides. This research was conducted to assess the effect of chronic sub-lethal exposure to 0, 0.01, and 0.1 mg/L diazinon for 15 and 30 days on blood parameters and histopathological damage in alligator gar, Atractosteus spatula. Fish exposed to either concentration were motionless, produced excess mucous, had lighter skin color, and had skin lesions. Blood indices of red blood cells, leukocytes and hematocrit values significantly decreased but there was no significant change in mean cell volume. Hemoglobin values significantly increased in fish exposed to the low dose for 15 days, but significantly decreased for the other exposure doses and times. On the contrary, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration values significantly increased in fish exposed to both concentrations and duration times. Leukocyte differentials showed significant decreases in lymphocytes with significant increases of monocytes in fish exposed to the high dose in both exposure times. The most frequent biomarker for exposure to organophosphate pesticides is the inhibition of cholinesterase (ChE). Diazinon significantly reduced plasma ChE activity in a dose-dependent manner, with 62% and 72% in the low and high concentrations for 30 days, respectively. Plasma ChE could be determined from peripheral blood samples and did not require sacrifice of the fish. Fish exposed to either diazinon concentration or duration time developed histopathological changes in skin, gills, liver, and kidney tissues. The skin lesions were on the head and body, and progressed into deep ulcerations. The histopathological changes in the liver included hepatic vacuoles, swollen hepatocytes, steatosis, aggregation of macrophages, necrosis, and hepatic fibrosis. Also, exposed fish demonstrated vacuolar degeneration in the hematopoietic tissues of the kidney. Gills showed epithelial hyperplasia in the secondary lamellae. In conclusion, long term exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of diazinon induced significant changes in hematological indices and histopathological alteration in various tissues. Plasma ChE can be used to monitor diazinon exposure in wild gar populations.

No description available.

Depuis plusieurs années, des agents exogènes environnementaux appelés perturbateurs endocriniens (PE), sont soupçonnés d’interférer avec les fonctions essentielles de reproduction et de développement chez de nombreux organismes vivants. Au travers de ce travail, nous avons tenté de combler certaines lacunes afin de mieux comprendre les dangers pour l’Homme posés par ces produits. Des études ont été menées visant à caractériser la toxicité testiculaire, chez le rat adulte, induite par des composés aux mécanismes d’action toxique divers (PE et non PE), ceci dans le but d’établir in fine l’existence ou non d’un comportement propre aux PE. En évaluant les effets de l’anti-androgène flutamide, nous avons identifié des changements d’expression géniques dose-reliés pour les voies métaboliques majeures associées à la lésion du testicule (ex. métabolisme des acides gras), et démontré l’existence d’une "dose sans effet moléculaire" inférieure à la NOAEL définie sur la base des changements phénotypiques adverses. Des études ont également été conduites avec le 1,3-dinitrobenzène, composé décrit dans la littérature comme n’interférant pas avec le système endocrinien et ayant pour cibles les cellules de Sertoli. Nous avons établi qu’en plus d’induire l’apoptose des cellules germinales et d’altérer la progression du cycle cellulaire, cette substance affecte aussi la stéroïdogénèse, remettant quelque peu en question l’origine de sa toxicité. En conclusion, l’ensemble de nos résultats nous ont permis d’apporter des précisions sur le mécanisme d’action toxique des deux molécules examinées et d’identifier des doses sans effet pour chacune d’entre elles. Ils contribuent également au débat portant sur la définition des critères requis pour la détermination des propriétés de PE. / For several years, certain environmental chemicals known as endocrine disrupters (ED) have been suspected to modulate essential functions like reproduction and development in intact organisms. Through this work, we have tried to fill some of the gaps in the understanding of the dangers posed by these products to man. Studies in adult rats were conducted to characterize testicular toxicity induced by compounds with different mechanisms of toxicity (ED and non-ED), in order to determine ultimately whether or not there exists a behavior specific to EDs. By assessing the effects of the anti-androgen, flutamide, we identified dose-related gene expression changes for the major metabolic pathways associated with testicular injury (eg, fatty acid metabolism) and demonstrated the existence of a "molecular no effect dose" preceding the NOAEL based on adverse phenotypic changes. Studies were also conducted with 1,3-dinitrobenzene (DNB), a compound considered as a direct-acting testicular toxicant and not as an ED. We established that, in addition to inducing germ cell apoptosis and affecting cell cycle progression, DNB interferes with the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, bringing into question the classing of this molecule as a non-ED. In conclusion, our results allowed us to address relevant issues within the field of ED, leading to new insights about the mechanisms of toxicity for the two molecules examined, and the identification of doses without effect for each of them. Our data also contribute to the debate concerning the definition of criteria required for the determination of endocrine disrupting properties.