Behovet av energieffektiva och välfungerande vattenreningssystem är stort, och växer i takt med den ökande befolkningsmängden. Lakvatten bildas då framförallt nederbörd rinner genom deponerat avfall. Problematiken kring lakvattenrening består i att bassängerna är placerade utomhus, vilket medför låga temperaturer under vinterhalvåret. Då lakvattenrening i huvudsak utförs med biologisk reningsteknik, medför de låga temperaturerna en sänkning i den bakteriella aktiviteten vilket försämrar reningseffektiviteten. Ett annat problem som ofta uppstår vid lakvattenrening är att det förorenade vattnet ofta består av höga halter kväve, medan fosforhalterna är låga. Detta ger en obalans i bakteriernas metabolism och kan leda till begränsningar i reningseffektivitet. I detta arbete har en nyutvecklad bioreaktor, som testas på Djupdalens avfallsanläggning, undersökts. Bioreaktorn togs i drift under hösten 2015 samt från april – december 2016. Mätdata från Djupdalen baserat på månatliga vattenprover och kemiska analyser för 2014 – 2016, har studerats för att ta reda på bioreaktorns bidrag till reningseffektvitet av ammoniumkväve. Egna vattenprovtagningar har utförts under maj 2017, där reningseffektivitet och aktiv biofilmsyta vid driftsättning av bioreaktorn studerats. Slutligen utfördes försök där biofilm från Djupdalen testats vid 17 – 18 liksom 12 – 15 ˚C med olika halter fosfortillskott, för att undersöka huruvida reningseffektiviteten kan förbättras om fosforhalten höjs. Resultaten tyder på att bioreaktorn bidrar till kraftig förbättring av reningseffektiviteten i luftningsbassängen, men förbättringspotential finns. Flera av de miljömässiga faktorerna i luftningsbassängen medför mindre gynnsamma förhållanden för den bakteriella tillväxten, såsom temperaturer under 15 ˚C, kraftiga underskott av fosfor i det inkommande lakvattnet och något för basiska pH värden. Genom egna vattenprovtagningar och medföljande kemiska analys framkom det att temperaturer över 15 ˚C i lakvattnet gynnar en snabbare utveckling av biofilmen. Slutligen visade laborativa försök att fosfortillskott vid temperaturer på 12 - 15 ˚C medförde en ökad reningseffektivitet, medan resultatet var oförändrat för temperaturer på 17 – 18 ˚C vid en uppehållstid på 24 timmar. Däremot visar en lägre uppehållstid på 16 timmar, att fosfortillskott påverkar försöken positivt för båda temperaturerna. Detta tyder på att ett fosfortillskott under hösten i luftningsbassängen, när temperaturerna i lakvattnet går under 15 ˚C, bör kunna medföra att bioreaktorn kan förbättra sin reningseffektivitet, trots den sjunkande lakvattentemperaturen. / The need for energy efficient and well-functioning water treatment systems is high, and grows as the growing population increases. Leachate is formed as water flows through landfilled waste. The problem of leachate treatment is that the reactors are located outdoors, which causes low temperatures during the winter months. As the leachate treatment is mainly carried out with biological purification techniques, the low temperatures cause a decrease in bacterial activity, which reduces the purification efficiency. Another problem that often arises in this type of water treatment is that the contaminated water consists of high nitrogen levels, while phosphorus levels are low. This gives an imbalance in the metabolism of the bacteria and can lead to limitations in purification efficiency. In this work, a newly developed bioreactor, which is tested at Djupdalen's waste facility, has been investigated. The bioreactor was put into operation in autumn 2015 and from April to December 2016. Measurement data from Djupdalen based on monthly water samples and chemical analyzes for 2014-2016 have been studied to find out the bioreactor's contribution to the purification efficiency of ammonium nitrogen. Water sampling was carried out in May 2017, where purification efficiency and active biofilm surface were calculated during the operation start of the bioreactor. Finally, experiments were performed where biofilms from Djupdalen were tested at 17-18 as well as 12-15 ° C with different levels of phosphorus supplementation, to investigate whether purification efficiency could be improved if phosphorus levels were increased. The results indicate that the bioreactor contributes to a significant improvement in the purification efficiency of the aeration reactor, but there is still an improvement potential. Several of the environmental factors in the aeration reactor cause less favorable conditions for bacterial growth, such as temperatures below 15 ˚C, severe phosphorus deficiency in the incoming leachate and slightly for basic pH values. Through water sampling and the accompanying chemical analysis it was found that temperatures above 15 ˚C in the leachate favor a faster development of the biofilm. Finally, laboratory experiments showed that phosphorus additions at temperatures of 12-15 ° C resulted in increased purification efficiency, while the result was unchanged for temperatures of 17-18 ° C at a water residence time at 24 hours. However, at a lower water residence time of 16 hours, the phosphorous supplement gave an effect for both temperatures. This indicates that a phosphorus supplement during the autumn of the aeration reactor, when the temperatures in the leachate go below 15 ˚C, should allow the bioreactor to improve its purification efficiency despite the sinking water temperature.

The principles behind anaerobic digestion are fairly well understood, but the limits of application of each digester design are not known. Because there are significant differences in the properties of the many wastewaters requiring treatment optimal anaerobic digester performance requires the matching of feed characteristics to a digester design and mode of operation. No consensus has yet emerged on digester design, operating conditions or feed/digester match-ups. In this study, three bench scale retained biomass anaerobic digester designs were examined for their response to a sequence of varied hydraulic retention times (HRTs) and influent wastewater concentrations. The digester designs studied were the upflow anaerobic filter, the upflow anaerobic expanded bed and the upflow anaerobic sludge bed. The wastewater was screened and diluted dairy cow manure obtained from the UBC dairy barn. The parameters monitored included the total and soluble chemical oxygen demand (TCOD and SCOD), volatile and suspended solids (VS and SS), total volatile fatty acids (VFAs), total Kjeldahl and ammonia nitrogen (TKN and NH₃-N), pH, biogas production, and the methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (C0₂) content of the biogas. Wastewater treatment efficiencies, measured in terms of TCOD, SCOD, VS, and TVFA removals, and methane productivity and methane yield for each of the digester designs were examined for the range of the operating conditions. The anaerobic filter digester effected a mean TCOD removal efficiency of 47% ± 14% at a mean 4.0 day HRT, 51% ± 9% at a mean 2.3 day HRT and 35% ± 11% at a mean 1.3 day HRT. The expanded bed digester effected a mean TCOD removal of 45% ± 15% at a mean 4.3 day HRT, 38% ± 12% at a mean 2.5 day HRT and 28% ± 9% at a mean 1.3 day HRT. The sludge bed digester effected a mean TCOD removal of 53% ± 9% at a mean 3.8 day HRT, 45% ± 12% at a mean 2.2 day HRT and 32% ± 10% at a mean 1.2 day HRT. For all three digesters, the difference in the treatment efficiency over the range of HRTs tested, from 5 to 1.25 days was not in proportion to the change in HRT. Methane productivity, measured against either the removal or addition of substrate in terms of TCOD, SCOD, VS and TVFA, demonstrated considerable variability. Methane production increased with both substrate addition and substrate removal. Methane yield increased with increasing HRT. The sludge bed digester generally exhibited the greatest but most variable methane yields. It produced 0.095 L CH₄/g VS added at a mean 3.8 day HRT and 0.037 L CH₄/g VS added at a mean 1.2 day HRT. The anaerobic filter delivered the greatest methane yield at the intermediate HRT, 0.044 L CH₄/g VS added at a mean 2.3 day HRT. The expanded bed demonstrated low methane yields over the range of feed strengths and HRTs tested. Biogas composition averaged 62.1% methane and 17.1% carbon dioxide for the anaerobic filter, 43.6% methane and 5.3% carbon dioxide for the expanded bed. and 61.1% methane and 18.9% carbon dioxide for the sludge bed. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Graduate

The advent of high molecular weight polyelectrolytes has stimulated research into their use for BOD reduction in primary and secondary treatment and as sludge dewatering aids in vacuum filtration and centrifugation. Since many of these products have not been approved for use in domestic water supplies because of their possible toxicity to humans, it was felt that they may be toxic to the microorganisms in anaerobic digestion, activated sludge or other biological treatment processes. This research evaluates effects on the anaerobic digestion process. Three continuously mixed laboratory scale anaerobic digesters were operated at 32±1°C with a 30 day hydraulic and solids retention time. Digester number one served as a control and received sludge obtained by sedimentation of domestic sewage without the use of coagulants; number two received sludge obtained using 14 mg/l of a cationic Hercules Incorporated polymer, Hercofloc 814.2, as the coagulant; and number three received sludge obtained using 30 mg/l of ferric chloride as the primary coagulant and 1 mg/l of Hercofloc 836.2 as a coagulant aid. Waste stabilization calculations, based on influent and effluent BOD, COD, and VS results and on methane production, failed to indicate any toxicity or physical inability of anaerobic microorganisms to penetrate the floes formed as a result of the addition of coagulants as aids to sewage sedimentation. Calculations of waste stabilization from BOD₅, BODL , COD, and VS results indicated treatment efficiencies of approximately 81, 70, 62 and 59 percent, respectively, for all three digesters. Results of pH, alkalinity, and volatile acids testing of digester effluents and total gas production from the digesters did not indicate unbalanced treatment due to the presence of coagulants. pH and alkalinity results were, however, consistently higher in the digesters receiving chemically coagulated sludge than in the control digester, signifying a greater buffering capacity against digester upset. The effluent from digester number two was observed to settle more rapidly and leave a clearer supernatant than effluent from either of the other digesters. Subsequent Buchner funnel vacuum filtration tests produced values of specific resistance for effluents from digesters one and three that were 18 times greater than the values obtained for the number two effluent. Although the results were for the mixed digester contents rather than for the settled portion of the effluent, they indicate that little or no additional conditioning would be required prior to vacuum filtration dewatering of effluent from digester number two. A limited number of jar tests and settling column tests using a weak to medium strength domestic sewage, produced BOD₅ and COD removal efficiencies of 50 to 70 percent using 30 mg/l of FeCl₃ in combination with 0.5-1.0 mg/l of anionic Hercofloc 836.2. Similar efficiencies were achieved using 6-14 mg/l of either of the cationic Hercofloc polymers, 812 or 814.2, as the sole coagulant. An economic analysis was carried out comparing the total annual costs of primary and activated sludge treatment methods. Capital costs were amortized over a twenty-five year period at 10 percent per annum and were added to operation and maintenance costs to obtain total costs. The results of this analysis indicated that the maximum economic dosages of Hercofloc 814.2 added continuously to primary plants operating at capacity are 14.9, 10.2, and 6.6 mg/l for 1, 10, and 100 mgd plants, respectively. Similarly for ferric chloride and 0.5 mg/l of Hercofloc 836.2, the corresponding economic dosages of FeCl₃ are 51, 34, and 21.5 mg/l. These dosages are based on the assumption that an adequate degree of treatment can be obtained by chemical precipitation. Within the limitations of the economic analysis and based on jar test results, it was concluded that use of Hercofloc 814.2 as an aid to primary clarification of domestic sewage is not an economically attractive alternative to providing activated sludge treatment unless an adequate degree of treatment can be achieved at dosages somewhat less than 14 mg/l. On the other hand, use of ferric chloride and Hercofloc 836.2 was found to be economically attractive for plants in the 1-10 mgd range. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Dr. B. Saunders Mr. N. de Villiers

Dr. K.S. Peck Dr. J.R. Torline

M.Tech.

Cervicogenic headache is a disorder that is gaining more recognition in the medical field annually. Although a lot of controversy surrounds cervicogenic headache due to its wide array of symptoms and overlap with pre-existing primary headaches, there are many etiologies and treatment procedures that currently exist. The aim of this study was to determine the most effective treatment protocol for cervicogenic headache by comparing three different research trials from the University of Johannesburg Chiropractic day clinic (former Technikon Witwatersrand Chiropractic day clinic) within a two-year period. The treatment protocols that were compared were cervical spinal manipulative therapy, a combination of cervical spinal manipulative therapy and cervical strengthening exercises, temporomandibular joint manipulative therapy and postural correction of the lumbar spine to decrease anterior head carriage. Seventy-eight participants from a possible 96 candidates were contacted telephonically and asked verbal consent to participate in the research trial. The participants were required to complete a telephonic questionnaire that was drawn up by the researcher involved with the aid of a statistical consultant. The questionnaire took 5 minutes to complete. The aim of the questionnaire was to assess the percentage of participants who were currently suffering from headache and the severity, duration and frequency of their headaches. Participants also needed to compare their current and previous headaches. The data was statistically analysed using cross tabulations and CHI squared tests. Statistical significance was calculated using Fischer’s exact test and Phi test for the two-by-two tables, while the Pearson test and Cramer’s V test was performed on tables larger than two-by-two. Statistical analysis revealed that the manipulation groups provided relief for up to three months, after which, symptoms recurred. The group that received the Easy Back Postural Correction Device showed the greatest improvement of symptoms in terms of headache free duration and decrease in current headache severity, duration and frequency. It can thus be concluded that postural correction of the lumbar spine, which in turn corrects anterior head translation, is the treatment of choice for cervicogenic headache. / Dr. M. Moodley Dr. R. van Zyl

M.Tech.

M. Tech. / Plantar fasciitis is the most common cause of heel pain for which professional care is sought (Singh, 2008). Plantar fasciitis is a common injury, and one which is known to be stubborn to many forms of treatment. The aim of the study was to determine the most effective treatment for individuals suffering with plantar fasciitis comparing three protocols, i.e. mobilisation and manipulation of the foot and ankle with cross friction massage of the plantar fascia versus stretching of the gastroc-soleus complex with cross friction massage of the plantar fascia or a combination of the aforementioned treatments. Participants in the study were recruited from information pamphlets, the University of Johannesburg Chiropractic and Podiatry Day Clinics and running clubs. Only those participants that conformed to the selection criteria were allowed to participate in the study. A total of forty five participants were included. These participants were randomly placed into one of three groups of fifteen participants in each group. Group one received manipulation and mobilisation therapy to the foot and ankle with cross friction massage of the plantar fascia. Group two received cross friction massage of the plantar fascia and stretching of the gastroc-soleus muscle. Group three received a combination of the aforementioned therapies. Subjective data was collected using the Short Form McGill Pain Questionnaire (SF-MPQ) and the Foot Function Index (FFI). Objective data was collected using the algometer to test differences in pain at the plantar fascia as well as ankle range of motion in dorsiflexion and plantarflexion which was measured using a goniometer. The results of this study indicate that cross friction massage of the plantar fascia and stretching of the gastroc-soleus complex would appear to have shown the greatest overall improvement in terms of reducing the pain and disability and ankle dorsiflexion range of motion. Manipulation of the foot and ankle, cross friction massage of the plantar fascia and stretching of the gastroc-soleus complex proved to have shown the greatest overall improvement in plantarflexion only. Based on the results of the study, cross friction massage and gastroc-soleus stretching is the most effective treatment protocol for plantar fasciitis.

M.Tech. / The purpose of this study was to determine the role of treating the gastrocnemius-soleus complex (GSC) through dry needling and passive stretching, in the management of chronic low back pain. This research aims to compare the effects of treating the GSC alone, lumbar spine manipulation alone or the combination of the two modalities in people suffering from chronic low back pain. Thirty candidates suffering from chronic low back pain between the ages of eighteen to forty years participated in this study. These candidates were recruited from the local surrounding area, through information pamphlets distributed throughout the Technikon Witwatersrand Doornfontein and advertisements placed in the local newspapers. Only those candidates that conformed to the selection criteria were allowed to participate in the study. Each candidate was randomly assigned to one of three groups as they enrolled for participation. Each group consisted of ten candidates. Group 1 candidates received treatment to the GSC by means of dry needling and passive stretching only. Group 2 candidates received lumbar spine manipulation only. Group 3 candidates received a combination of lumbar spine manipulation and dry needling and passive stretching of the GSC. Each candidate received treatment three times a week, every second day over three weeks thus receiving a total of nine treatments each. Subjective data was collected using the Numerical Pain Rating Scale 101 and the Oswestry Low Back Pain and Disability Questionnaire. Objective data was collected using the electronic inclinometer to measure the lumbar spine range of motion in flexion, extension, right and left lateral flexion and right and left anterior rotation. Pressure algometry of the most active trigger point in the GSC was also recorded. Both the subjective and objective data were recorded on the first, third, fifth and ninth treatment consultations before any treatment was administered.