Oil sands mining companies in Alberta, Canada, are planning to create wetlands for the bioremediation of mining waste materials as part of a reclamation strategy. To assess feasibility, experimental wetlands mimicking proposed reclamation scenarios were constructed on mining leases. This research assessed the health of tree swallows (<i>Tachycineta bicolor</i>) nesting on these sites where they were naturally exposed to a mixture of chemicals including unrecovered bitumen, naphthenic acids (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Endpoints reflecting health were compared among three experimental wetlands and one reference site. In order to specifically investigate toxicity of NAs to birds, an experimental exposure to NAs was also conducted on a subset of nestlings on the reference site. <p> In 2003 and 2004, approximately 50 breeding pairs (total, per year) nesting on the following sites were monitored: Suncors Consolidated Tailings and Natural Wetlands; Syncrudes Demo Pond and Poplar Creek reference site. In 2003, reproductive success was very low on OSPM-sites compared to the reference site, but was relatively unaffected in 2004. Compromised reproductive performance in 2003 was linked to harsh weather, during which mortality rates of nestlings reached 100% on the site with the highest levels of PAHs and NAs, while they did not surpass 50% on the reference site. In 2004, mortality rates were low but nestlings from OSPM-sites weighed less and showed greater hepatic detoxification efforts (etoxyresorufin-o-deethylase activity) than those on the reference site. Furthermore, nestlings on OSPM-sites exhibited higher levels of thyroid hormones and suffered parasitic burdens (Protocalliphora spp.) approximately twice that of those on the reference site. Several of these findings may be associated with low post-fledging survival, suggesting that wet landscape reclamation strategy is not optimal for avian species and may require improvement. <p> As part of a separate study investigating toxicity of naphthenic acids, twenty nestlings from the reference site were randomly selected for an experimental exposure. Nestlings received 0.1 ml/day of NAs (15g/L) orally from day 7 to day 13 of age while being reared normally by their free-ranging parents. Nestling growth, hematocrit, blood biochemistry, organ weights and etoxyresorufin-o-deethylase activity (EROD) activity appeared unaffected by naphthenic acids. No toxic changes were detected on histopathological evaluation of major organs. These findings suggest that for nestlings reared on oil sands reclaimed sites, exposure to other chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons is a greater concern than exposure to NAs. However, this study did not investigate the chronic or reproductive toxicity of naphthenic acids. More research still needs to be conducted as a part of an assessment of the sustainability of wet landscape reclamation because a previous study found that chronic exposure to NAs severely compromised reproduction in mammals.

Oil sands mining companies in Alberta, Canada, are planning to create wetlands for the bioremediation of mining waste materials as part of a reclamation strategy. To assess feasibility, experimental wetlands mimicking proposed reclamation scenarios were constructed on mining leases. This research assessed the health of tree swallows (<i>Tachycineta bicolor</i>) nesting on these sites where they were naturally exposed to a mixture of chemicals including unrecovered bitumen, naphthenic acids (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Endpoints reflecting health were compared among three experimental wetlands and one reference site. In order to specifically investigate toxicity of NAs to birds, an experimental exposure to NAs was also conducted on a subset of nestlings on the reference site. <p> In 2003 and 2004, approximately 50 breeding pairs (total, per year) nesting on the following sites were monitored: Suncors Consolidated Tailings and Natural Wetlands; Syncrudes Demo Pond and Poplar Creek reference site. In 2003, reproductive success was very low on OSPM-sites compared to the reference site, but was relatively unaffected in 2004. Compromised reproductive performance in 2003 was linked to harsh weather, during which mortality rates of nestlings reached 100% on the site with the highest levels of PAHs and NAs, while they did not surpass 50% on the reference site. In 2004, mortality rates were low but nestlings from OSPM-sites weighed less and showed greater hepatic detoxification efforts (etoxyresorufin-o-deethylase activity) than those on the reference site. Furthermore, nestlings on OSPM-sites exhibited higher levels of thyroid hormones and suffered parasitic burdens (Protocalliphora spp.) approximately twice that of those on the reference site. Several of these findings may be associated with low post-fledging survival, suggesting that wet landscape reclamation strategy is not optimal for avian species and may require improvement. <p> As part of a separate study investigating toxicity of naphthenic acids, twenty nestlings from the reference site were randomly selected for an experimental exposure. Nestlings received 0.1 ml/day of NAs (15g/L) orally from day 7 to day 13 of age while being reared normally by their free-ranging parents. Nestling growth, hematocrit, blood biochemistry, organ weights and etoxyresorufin-o-deethylase activity (EROD) activity appeared unaffected by naphthenic acids. No toxic changes were detected on histopathological evaluation of major organs. These findings suggest that for nestlings reared on oil sands reclaimed sites, exposure to other chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons is a greater concern than exposure to NAs. However, this study did not investigate the chronic or reproductive toxicity of naphthenic acids. More research still needs to be conducted as a part of an assessment of the sustainability of wet landscape reclamation because a previous study found that chronic exposure to NAs severely compromised reproduction in mammals.

There is growing evidence of carry-over effects in migratory birds. Aerial insectivores are declining across North America; therefore, to determine the cause of these declines, we must have a holistic view of their annual cycle. I use geolocators to map the annual movements of tree swallows breeding in Nova Scotia, Canada, determine if reproduction has carry-over effects on migration, and examine the effects of geolocators. Geolocators revealed that tree swallows began migration in July and had an extended stopover in the northeastern United States. They wintered in Florida or Cuba, returning from spring migration in late April. This study revealed that later breeding swallows began migration later than earlier breeding swallows, but all birds arrived on the wintering grounds around the same time, due to differences in stopover length. No short-term effects of geolocators were found, although the sample size was small, and thus these results must be interpreted cautiously.

Agricultural practices have intensified over the last 50 years, increasing crop production and altering the Canadian Prairie landscape by removing non-cropped habitats and wetlands. The productivity, trophic structure and diversity have changed through increased agrochemical inputs and reductions in yearly rotation and diversification of crop types. Most intensive agricultural practices have negative effects on invertebrate communities that can indirectly affect higher trophic organisms, such as birds. Many populations of aerial insectivorous bird species have been experiencing rapid declines in the last 30–40 years. Dependency on high abundances of aerial insects for reproduction and survival is a common link among all species of this guild. My thesis examined aerial insect abundance as a potential link between agricultural land use and the reproductive ecology, nestling body condition, and diet of an aerial insectivore species, the tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor). My broad goal was to determine whether agriculture has deleterious effects on timing of breeding, reproductive investment and success, and nestling quality, as mediated by food supply and differences in diet. Aerial insect abundance and biomass estimates obtained from passive insect traps which capture primarily aquatic dipterans were similar between agricultural and reference sites during all stages of breeding. However, estimates derived from sweep-net sampling in terrestrial habitats in 2013 indicated higher abundances of aquatic and terrestrial Diptera at a reference site relative to agricultural sites. Multiple measures of tree swallow productivity were not related to agriculture land use but nestling body condition was significantly lower on agricultural sites. Using stable isotope analysis (delta 13C and delta 15N), I found site and age specific differences in swallow diets and isotopic niche widths but variation was not consistently related to agricultural land use. Aquatic insect prey (Diptera and Odonata) made up the majority of the diet of swallows but nestlings had a larger proportion of terrestrial Diptera which resulted in larger isotopic niche widths compared to adults. The assimilated isotopic diet of nestling and adult swallows were not strong predictors of body size, mass or condition, suggesting that site differences in the diet do not appreciably affect condition. Nestlings raised on agricultural sites had lower body condition that was not directly linked to their diet alone. This suggests other unmeasured factors related to agricultural land use may affect nestling tree swallows. This study tested responses in an aerial insectivore species to land use and potential shifts in the insect community, which may provide important information for conservation and management decisions for many species within the aerial insectivore guild.

Throughout North America, many species of aerial insectivorous birds – birds that capture flying insects – have exhibited sharp declines, with tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) experiencing a 2.8% annual decline in Canada since 1989. The timing of these declines coincides with major changes in agriculture, perhaps signaling a potential causal link. Declines may be influenced indirectly by agriculturally-driven reductions in the abundance of the swallow’s main diet of aerial insects through increased agrochemical use, wetland drainage and cropping intensity. My objectives were to determine how aerial insect abundance and biomass vary across an agricultural landscape in the Canadian Prairies, and determine how breeding tree swallows respond in terms of (i) foraging behaviours and return rates, (ii) body condition, and (iii) selected physiological responses (i.e. oxidative stress and feather corticosterone). Artificial nest-boxes were erected at each of 5 sites with varying levels of agricultural intensification in south-central Saskatchewan, 2012-2014. Insect abundance and biomass were monitored daily using passive aerial samplers at each of the sites throughout the breeding season. Tree swallows adults (n = 596) and nestlings (n = 1107) from each nest were captured, banded, measured and blood and feather sampled to determine condition and physiological status. In 2014, radio frequency identification (RFID) technology was employed at a subset of nest-boxes to determine adult foraging rates and durations. Despite strong differences in land use characteristics among sites, insect abundance and biomass varied by year but were similar between heavily cropped and grassland references sites. Regardless, birds responded to temporal changes in prey abundance and differences were found in measurements of foraging behavior and physiological measures of oxidative stress. Adult foraging rate (number of nest visits/hour) was primarily influenced by wind and nestling age, but was also positively related to daily insect biomass. Foraging intervals (i.e., length of time spent on each trip) differed between agricultural intensities; birds on agricultural sites spent more time away from the nest box, presumably foraging, suggesting reduced nest attentiveness. Return rates were primarily predicted by body condition and brood size from the previous breeding season, but were also higher on grassland sites, suggesting that agricultural sites may be less favorable. Older adults (based on banding records) and females displayed a higher body condition than did younger individuals and males, respectively. Measures of physiology (i.e. total antioxidant counts and oxidative damage) in both adult and nestling swallows were primarily driven by temporal changes in insect biomass and abundance. Similarly, adult body mass and physiology were related to local insect availability, but not land use (agriculture/grassland). Measures of nestling feather corticosterone were unrelated to any of the explanatory variables. These results provide valuable information pertaining to components of individual quality, foraging behaviour, and return status in response to prey availability under differing agricultural land use regimes, which may help to inform conservation strategies for a variety of insectivorous bird species of conservation concern.

Recent changes in climate have increased public attention and scientific evaluation of climate impacts on wild animals and plants. Variation in local weather and regional climate may affect breeding success in birds. Migratory species may be sensitive to these changes as breeding and wintering areas may experience different climate variations; some insectivorous species may be unable to alter timing of migration or laying dates and experience a mismatch between timing of nesting and peak insect availability for their nestlings. Therefore, I investigated the influence of local weather variables and regional climate on breeding performance of an insectivorous migrant songbird, the Tree Swallow (<i>Tachycineta bicolor</i>), and tried to examine effects of a mismatch between the timing of breeding and food availability.<p>I used a 14 year data set from St. Denis, Saskatchewan, Canada, 1991-2004, to evaluate correlations among local weather, wetland conditions, aerial insects and regional climate indices and their relationships with variation in clutch initiation date, clutch size, and fledging success. Swallows returned to the study site in late April each year. Annual variation in median clutch initiation date was best explained by mean minimum temperatures during 1-15 May. Larger clutches were laid in years with higher pond water levels (possibly an indication of increased insect availability) and when the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) was positive (representing La Niña conditions). Fledging success was not influenced greatly by any explanatory variable; however, fledging success tended to increase in years with higher average temperatures. Individual variation in clutch initiation date was examined using path analysis. I found high correlations between initiation date and both local environmental variables and regional climate indices; earlier nesting was associated with warmer temperatures (increased local temperatures, more positive North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAOI) values and more negative SOI values) and decreased moisture (more positive NAOI values). Two reduced data sets, including female age or insect abundance, were also examined. Clutches were initiated earlier by older females and during springs with higher abundance of aerial insects.<p>I applied two heating treatments to nest boxes used by pre-laying swallows and compared reproductive measures (timing of nesting, laying sequence, clutch size, egg weight and fledging success) of birds using heated boxes to those of females attending unheated control boxes. However, I was unable to directly examine the predictions of the mismatch hypothesis because nest box heating failed to advance laying dates. Furthermore, no increases in clutch size, egg weight and fledging success were detected between treatment and control nests. Although box heating increased nest temperatures an average of 6.1C (+ 0.8 SE) over controls, length of time females spent in heated boxes may have been too short to alleviate energetic constraints on egg production, or energy savings associated with box use were insufficient to supersede the influence of ambient environmental conditions that control food availability and energy expenditure of foraging swallows. My results demonstrated that local and regional climate variation strongly affected timing of nesting in swallows, likely via their effects on food supply.

Recent changes in climate have increased public attention and scientific evaluation of climate impacts on wild animals and plants. Variation in local weather and regional climate may affect breeding success in birds. Migratory species may be sensitive to these changes as breeding and wintering areas may experience different climate variations; some insectivorous species may be unable to alter timing of migration or laying dates and experience a mismatch between timing of nesting and peak insect availability for their nestlings. Therefore, I investigated the influence of local weather variables and regional climate on breeding performance of an insectivorous migrant songbird, the Tree Swallow (<i>Tachycineta bicolor</i>), and tried to examine effects of a mismatch between the timing of breeding and food availability.<p>I used a 14 year data set from St. Denis, Saskatchewan, Canada, 1991-2004, to evaluate correlations among local weather, wetland conditions, aerial insects and regional climate indices and their relationships with variation in clutch initiation date, clutch size, and fledging success. Swallows returned to the study site in late April each year. Annual variation in median clutch initiation date was best explained by mean minimum temperatures during 1-15 May. Larger clutches were laid in years with higher pond water levels (possibly an indication of increased insect availability) and when the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) was positive (representing La Niña conditions). Fledging success was not influenced greatly by any explanatory variable; however, fledging success tended to increase in years with higher average temperatures. Individual variation in clutch initiation date was examined using path analysis. I found high correlations between initiation date and both local environmental variables and regional climate indices; earlier nesting was associated with warmer temperatures (increased local temperatures, more positive North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAOI) values and more negative SOI values) and decreased moisture (more positive NAOI values). Two reduced data sets, including female age or insect abundance, were also examined. Clutches were initiated earlier by older females and during springs with higher abundance of aerial insects.<p>I applied two heating treatments to nest boxes used by pre-laying swallows and compared reproductive measures (timing of nesting, laying sequence, clutch size, egg weight and fledging success) of birds using heated boxes to those of females attending unheated control boxes. However, I was unable to directly examine the predictions of the mismatch hypothesis because nest box heating failed to advance laying dates. Furthermore, no increases in clutch size, egg weight and fledging success were detected between treatment and control nests. Although box heating increased nest temperatures an average of 6.1C (+ 0.8 SE) over controls, length of time females spent in heated boxes may have been too short to alleviate energetic constraints on egg production, or energy savings associated with box use were insufficient to supersede the influence of ambient environmental conditions that control food availability and energy expenditure of foraging swallows. My results demonstrated that local and regional climate variation strongly affected timing of nesting in swallows, likely via their effects on food supply.