Thesis (M.S.)--Brigham Young University. Dept. of Geological Sciences, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 52-54).

Late Middle Eocene time marks one of the most dynamic periods of the Paleogene in the western interior of North America. Analysis of an extensive, new collection of plant, invertebrate, and vertebrae fossils from the Uinta Formation in the Uinta Basin, south of Myton, Utah, USA, provides evidence of environmental change. Paleobotanical specimens are preserved in late stage Uinta Lake sediments and coarse-grained fluvial sediments which are stratigraphically 650 to 660 m above the Green River Formation. Deposition rates estimates of 18 to 55 cm/kyr, for Uinta Lake sediments in the Uinta Basin suggest a period of 1.18 Ma to 3.69 Ma to deposit the thick section of lacustrine and fluvial sediments that separates the well-documented Green River Flora from this new fossil leaf assemblage, the Wells Draw flora. Prolific invertebrate trace fossils and invertebrates have a preference for areas with high to fluctuating water tables and soil moistures. The trace fossils are similar to traces of extant invertebrates found in temperate to tropical climates. A variety of reptiles, namely eight species of turtles/tortoise, one lizard (first report of Saniwa from the Uinta Formation), and at least two crocodilian species, are indicative of warm-temperate to subtropical climatic zones. Flow direction data derived from sedimentary structures in sandstone channel-fills confirms previous studies which indicate the major sediment source area was to the east with a prevailing westward to northwestward flow direction. The presence of higher elevation plant material within the flora, however, implies possible hydraulic transport from the nearby Uinta Mountain highlands, located north of the basin. The first report of Palmoxylon from the Uinta Formation, included in this report, corroborates the faunal indicators of a tropical climate. Physiognomical analysis of the flora yields a mean annual temperature (MAT) of 16.1◦C and a mean annual precipitation (MAP) of 56 cm. Compared with older Green River flora, these new data suggest a slight drying and cooling trend toward the end of the Eocene. Leaf types also indicate possible seasonality with seasonally dry periods and an overall warm-temperate environment with extreme minima temperatures not much below freezing.

Biologists often trap animals to obtain information on them. If trapping is selective toward some animals, the information may be inaccurate. Most mammalogists know or suspect that their trapping techniques (reviewed by Hayne, 1949; and Stickel, 1954) contain sources of bias. Since trapping remains the only feasible way to obtain information on many animals, researchers have tried to discover sources of sampling error and refine their techniques. They have found that one major source of difficulty may lie in the behavior of animals. Individual animals seem to respond differently to trapping, both initially and through learning (Geis, 1955; Crowcroft and Jeffers, 1961; and others). However, researchers seldom observe the behavioral responses of animals to traps. They infer information from capture data. Perhaps an empirical approach would shed more light on the relationship between behavior and trapping. The present study is such an approach. The study concerns the behavioral responses of adult Uinta ground squirrels, Citellus armatus, to trapping. I based the study on the direct observations of known individuals in a wild population. My primary objective was to learn how animals respond to a trap, to capture, and to recapture. My approach was both that of a population ecologist interested in factors affecting trapping success and that of a behaviorist interested in the effect of trapping procedures on the behavior of animals. I conducted a broad ecological and behavioral study of the population (Balph and Stokes, 1963) before beginning the research on trap response, which helped me select parameters and develop procedures. I also conducted a pilot study on deer mice, Peromyscus maniculatus, in the laboratory to test some procedures and the design of the trap-response investigation.

Biologists often trap animals to obtain information on them. If trapping is selective toward some animals, the information may be inaccurate. Most mammalogists know or suspect that their trapping techniques (reviewed by Hayne, 1949; and Stickel, 1954) contain sources of bias. Since trapping remains the only feasible way to obtain information on many animals, researchers have tried to discover sources of sampling error and refine their techniques. They have found that one major source of difficulty may lie in the behavior of animals. Individual animals seem to respond differently to trapping, both initially and through learning (Geis, 1955; Crowcroft and Jeffers, 1961; and others). However, researchers seldom observe the behavioral responses of animals to traps. They infer information from capture data. Perhaps an empirical approach would shed more light on the relationship between behavior and trapping. The present study is such an approach. The study concerns the behavioral responses of adult Uinta ground squirrels, Citellus armatus, to trapping. I based the study on the direct observations of known individuals in a wild population. My primary objective was to learn how animals respond to a trap, to capture, and to recapture. My approach was both that of a population ecologist interested in factors affecting trapping success and that of a behaviorist interested in the effect of trapping procedures on the behavior of animals. I conducted a broad ecological and behavioral study of the population (Balph and Stokes, 1963) before beginning the research on trap response, which helped me select parameters and develop procedures. I also conducted a pilot study on deer mice, Peromyscus maniculatus, in the laboratory to test some procedures and the design of the trap-response investigation.

Twenty- six sedge-dominated sites in the Uinta Mountains of northeastern Utah were studied. These sites could be placed into two categories, wetland sites (those with water-saturated soils) and alpine tundra sites. The alpine sites had above-ground standing crops between 37 and 206 g/m2 • The soils were sandy and low in nutrients. Indirect gradient analysis of the alpine sites showed a relationship between soil stability and vegetation. No other factors were found to be related to overall vegetation patterns. The wetland sites were dominated by different Carex species than the alpine sites. These wetlands were often patches of monotypic stands. Above- ground standing crop values ranged from 28 360 g/m2 and were strongly dependent upon the stagnation of the water on the site.

The High Uinta Primitive Area, Utah's most popular high mountain recreation area, has a reputation as an excellent trout and grayling fishery. Proposed for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System, the area faces several management dilemmas. The primary problem being that managers must protect the resource from the effects of heavy recreational use without destroying the primitive and aesthetic dimensions of wilderness environment. It appears that much impact on the more accessible lakes is due to fishing use. The objectives of the study were: (1) to determine the proportions of angling to non-angling groups; (2) to describe certain characteristics of these anglers; (3) to examine the importance of fishing and factors affecting fishing enjoyment; and (4) to determine the angler's knowledge and experience with adjacent de facto wilderness alternatives. The method of data collection was an interview questionnaire administered on Highline trail leading into the Primitive area and Notch Mountain trail leading to de facto wildlands. A conservative stratified sampling scheme was used to obtain proper representation of weekday, weekend and holiday users of both areas. Results were coded and punched for computer organization and tabulation. The results indicate that slightly more than half the groups contacted were comprised of one or more fishermen planning to fish the study area; with slightly greater proportions of anglers using the Primitive area. Over half the anglers were visiting the areas for the first time and were motivated by the desire to "escape" from routine, get outdoors, and enjoy mountain scenery. Fishing was not an important motive but was a preferred activity. Anglers of the study areas fished more than average Utah fishermen and preferred high mountain lake and stream fisheries. Anglers reported high catch rates and mostly rated the fishing as "good" . Hypothetical catch reductions did not bother anglers because as many stated , "fishing was secondary". However, the dissatisfactions of less successful anglers and the angler's desire to maintain the fishery through stocking still reveal some importance in fishing activity. Anglers also appeared to be somewhat intolerant with increased crowd levels. Most anglers were inexperienced and ignorant of de facto alternatives. It appeared that decisions regarding such alternatives were partially based on Notch Mountain standards. Also, the accessibility and high amounts of dayuse suggest that different kinds of experiences may be sought in the Notch Mountain area.

The northern slopes of the Uinta Mountains, Utah were previously glaciated and contain many landslides. The Tokewanna Landslide is very large and lacks Quaternary faults. Presumably, increased moisture was the failure trigger. A Quaternary climate record from a cored fen, developed in a small basin between hummocks, was reconstructed using sediment pyrolysis, biomass balance, and magnetic susceptibility. Pyrolysis is used to define Hydrogen Indices that are used to delineate wetter and drier conditions based on the kerogen type - Type III being drier, and Type II wetter. The data were matched to a time/depth curve and compared to other Uinta Mountains climate studies. Pyrolysis, biomass balance, and magnetic susceptibility results indicate drier to wetter conditions from ~11,027 to ~8,800 cal yr BP. This was followed by an increase in precipitation, peaking ~8,060 cal yr BP, and then decreasing. Drying conditions ensued after ~4,800 cal yr BP, and from ~1,700 cal yr BP to modern. Regional studies suggest mid-Holocene Epoch warming; some also indicate increased precipitation during those periods. A study at nearby Little Lyman Lake (Tingstad et al., 2011) displays a plankton percent record similar to the wetness record of the study fen. The fen core record does not indicate wet conditions at its base as expected. The record begins ~11,000 cal yr BP and likely represents an incomplete history of this Holocene fen, as the base of the wetland deposits was not reached.

Geologic mapping (1:24,000 scale) of the Ice Cave Peak quadrangle, Uintah and Duchesne Counties, Utah has produced a better understanding of the geologic structures present in the quadrangle and has increased our understanding of faulting in northeastern Utah. Map units in the quadrangle range in age from late Neoproterozoic to Quaternary and include good exposures of Paleozoic rocks (Mississippian to Permian), limited exposures of Mesozoic rocks, and good exposures of Tertiary strata (Duchesne River Formation and Bishop Conglomerate) deposited during uplift of the Uinta Mountains. Lower Mississippian strata along the south flank of the Uinta Mountains have typically been mapped as Madison Limestone. Our preliminary mapping suggested that the Madison could perhaps be subdivided into an upper unit equivalent to the Deseret Limestone, and a lower unit separated by a phosphatic interval equivalent to the Delle Phosphatic Member of the Deseret Limestone found farther west. Upon further investigation, we propose not extending the use of Deseret Limestone, with the equivalent to the Delle Phosphatic Member at its base, into the south-central Uinta Mountains. Microprobe analysis revealed no phosphorus in thin sections of this unit. Instead, the unit is composed almost entirely of calcite and dolomite. A zone of northwest-trending faults, called the Deep Creek fault zone, occurs mainly east of the Ice Cave Peak quadrangle. However, our mapping shows that this fault zone extends into the quadrangle. These faults are both strike-slip and normal/oblique faults as documented by mapping and kinematic indicators and cut the folded hanging-wall sedimentary rocks above the Uinta Basin-Mountain boundary thrust fault. These faults may be part of an en echelon fault system that is rooted in the Neoproterozoic and reactivated during Laramide deformation above a possible transfer zone between segments of the buried boundary thrust.

In an attempt to describe, explain, and show the demographic significance of annual variations in the nesting distribution of Uinta ground squirrels, a study was conducted during the summers of 1964 through 1967 in northern Utah. Procedures included both trapping and direct observation. It was found that females tended to nest in open, previously inhabited, grassy areas. Males resided throughout a variety of habitats. This typical nesting distribution was established initially in the summer by juveniles shortly after they first appeared aboveground. The extent to which the distribution was maintained the following spring depended largely upon the number of female s which emerged from hibernation and the pattern in which they emerged. The number of females which appeared depended upon the previous year's breeding density and productivity. The pattern of emergence appeared to be a function of an inherent pattern of physiological arousal from hibernation and the prevailing weather conditions. The number and sequence of emergence of females in the early spring affected breeding and social organization in a manner which limited the number of females which retained residences in the study area. This determined the actual breeding density. In addition, emergence influenced the production of offspring by altering both the breeding density and the number of non-productive females in the population. The adaptive significance of the system and its applicability to other species are discussed.

Dispersed recreation management is a form of management that has emerged over the past century of outdoor recreation management on public lands in the United States. Techniques used in dispersed recreation management seek to disperse recreation use, recreational areas, and their impacts across landscapes and ecosystems or to concentrate such use to areas that remain undeveloped. This study is a mixed-methods, descriptive study of dispersed recreation management on national forest lands. In particular, this study focuses on United States Forest Service (USFS) management Concentrated Use Areas (CUAs) on Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest (UWCNF), as identified in the 2003 Revised Forest Plan of the Wasatch-Cache National Forest. A qualitative approach of inventorying past management actions, observing CUAs, and interviewing recreation managers and resource specialists on the UWCNF was used. The qualitative aspects of this study were also coupled with a quantitative analysis of Geographic Positioning System (GPS) based data using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to better understand characteristics of CUAs and their management in dispersed recreation settings. Overall, this study draws many conclusions involving the definition of, and management and design solutions for CUAs. CUAs can be described as easily accessible, flat areas adjacent to roads, with good access to water, and shade. These areas are often used for camping of various types, with trailers and groups being a predominant use. ATVs and motorized use are also associated with these areas. Use is generally considered high and continual during the summer season, with sites often being used year after year by families and groups of friends. Loss of vegetation, soil compaction, and soil erosion are common impacts attributed to concentrated recreational use. Another finding was that recreation resource managers and resource specialists have similar views of what CUAs are and how they are managed. Management actions generally consist of both indirect and direct management actions focused on limiting environmental impacts caused by recreation uses. Management actions are conducted on both large and small scales within districts, and dispersed recreation protocol was found that called on management to reduce biophysical impacts. However, management techniques lack official targets and metrics for measuring the success of management. Design is also a component of CUA management. The design of CUAs generally consists of adapting user-created recreation areas into more structured and defined areas.