Ultrasonic humidifiers use sound vibrations at frequencies higher than can be heard by humans (> 20,000 Hz) to generate aerosolized water also have potential for inducing sonochemical reactions for chemicals present in water. This research focuses on examining oxidants formed within ultrasonic humidifiers, as well as the oxidants effects of contaminants in water used in the systems. Hydroxyl radicals were found using DMPO as a spin trap. Caffeine and 17β-estradiol, as pharmaceutical contaminants of drinking water, were both emitted from the humidifier when present in the water reservoir and would enter breathing air. Emitted 17β-estradiol was found at 60% of the initial concentration filled in the ultrasonic humidifier after 480 minutes. Caffeine exhibited less degradation than 17β-estradiol. Degradation of both pharmaceuticals was attributed to ultrasonic processes, most likely oxidation with hydroxyl radicals produced. Bromide as a contaminant of the fill water was found to remain constant over time. / MS / Ultrasonic humidifiers carry health benefits from humidified air, but also have potential for chemical reactions within the systems that can impact human health. This research focuses on examining oxidants formed in ultrasonic humidifiers, as well as the degradation of contaminants in water used in the ultrasonic humidifiers. Hydroxyl radicals were found to be generated within the humidifier system. Caffeine and 17β-estradiol, a common estrogen, are possible contaminants in drinking water, which may be used to fill a humidifier. Both were introduced and emitted from the ultrasonic humidifier. Emitted 17β-estradiol was found at 60% of the initial concentration filled in the ultrasonic humidifier at the start of 8 hours. Degradation of both pharmaceuticals was attributed to ultrasonic processes, most likely oxidation with hydroxyl radicals produced.

Portable ultrasonic humidifiers add moisture into room air, but they simultaneously add exposure risks of aerosolized metals from drinking water used as fill water. The inhalation exposure from emitted metals can be overlooked, and thus, co-exposure of inhalation and ingestion and co-exposure to multiple inorganic metals is investigated. The objectives of this work are: 1) predict airborne metal concentrations and particle sizes in four realistic room scenarios (33 m3 small or 72 m3 large, with varying ventilation rates from 0.2/hr -1.5/hr), and the investigated metals are arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, and manganese; 2) characterize exposure doses and consequent risks for adults and 0.25, 1, 2.5, and 6 yr old children, when using identical drinking water ingested and as fill water, including inhalation of fine, respirable particles generated at the frequency of 8 hrs/day (equals 121.67 days/yr) and daily ingestion, under four realistic room scenarios. The risk assessment includes non-cancer [calculation of average daily dose (ADD) and hazard quotient (HQ)] and cancer risk evaluation; 3) quantify deposition fraction and deposited doses of multiple metals in human adult's and children's respiratory tract, using multi-path particle dosimetry (MPPD) model. Results show airborne-particle-bound metal concentrations increase proportionally with water metals, and a poorly ventilated room causes greater exposure. Ingestion ADDs are 2 magnitudes higher than inhalation ADD, at identical water metal concentrations and daily exposure frequency. However, in the worse-case scenario of 33 m3 small room with low air exchange rate, the consequent inhalation HQs are all greater than 1 for children and adults, except for lead, indicating significant non-cancer risks when exposed to humidifier particles under the worse-case scenario. The cancer risks for arsenic, cadmium, chromium, and lead metals reveal are greater than acceptable one case in a million population (1E-6) produced from inhalation of the humidifier emitted metal-containing particles only. The MPPD model results indicate inhaled metal-containing airborne particles deposit primarily in head and pulmonary regions, and a greater dose (unit in µg/kg body weight/day) deposits in children than adults. Inhalation of ultrasonic humidifier aerosolized metals results in additional, and potentially greater risks (indicated by HQinhalation >1, and greater deposited dose) than ingestion at the same aqueous metal concentration, especially for children. Room conditions (i.e. volume and ventilation) influence risks. Both inhalation and ingestion exposures require consideration for eliminating multiple metal exposures and health-based environmental policy making. Consumers should be aware that they may be degrading their indoor air quality by using ultrasonic humidifiers even when filling with acceptable water quality for drinking. / Doctor of Philosophy / The purpose of this work is to investigate the exposure from use of ultrasonic humidifiers filled with drinking water containing inorganic metals. Typical exposure pathway of drinking water metals is ingestion. However, inhalation of aerosolized metals can cause undesirable health effects towards metal exposure, when fill water of ultrasonic humidifiers is the same drinking water, and the inhalation of aerosolized metals exposure pathway can be overlooked. Emitted airborne particles are composed of soluble metals in drinking water, and are respirable with diameters between 100-200 nm. PM2.5 (particulate matter with aerodynamic under 2.5 µm) concentrations increase from approximately 2 µg/m3 to hundreds of µg/m3 in a common-sized room, exceeding the USEPA's regulatory level of 15 µg/m3 for ambient air PM2.5. The resulting air metal concentrations increase with increasing metals in the fill water, and/or lower ventilation rates in a household room. In addition, children receive greater average daily exposure doses than adults (i.e. average daily dose and deposited dose, in unit of µg/kg body weight/day), when assuming daily inhalation exposure of 8 hr/day and daily ingestion exposure. The ingestion doses from various metals are greater than inhalation doses, however, the inhalation risks may be greater for certain metals than ingestion. Even when using acceptable drinking water quality that meets regulations for metals, the indoor air quality is still degraded and can pose adverse health effects. In conclusion, the dissertation work presents a framework to estimate risks developed from multi-media and single or multi-metals exposure. The addition from inhalation of aerosolized metals in drinking water should be considered in an overall risk assessment, especially for the susceptible population of young children. Consumers should be aware that they may be degrading their indoor air quality by using ultrasonic humidifiers even when filling with acceptable water quality for drinking.