There is limited knowledge and understanding of the role of nutrients and effect of herbivore grazing on epilithon production in Australian upland rivers. Before investigating these processes, a method was required that will allow the study of factors (physical, chemical and biological) that affect epilithon abundance and distribution in lotic systems. The Thredbo River, Kosciusko National Park, New South Wales, provided an opportunity to conduct this investigation because it: is relatively undisturbed; has been intensely studied; is easily accessed; and is of appropriate width and depth to conduct in-stream experiments. The specific goals of this research were the: (1) validation of the nutrient-diffusing substrate method for investigating epilithon responses to nutrients; (2) development of experimental channels in which to investigate nutrient/epilithon dynamics in an upland stream; (3) development of a method to inhibit macroinvertebrate grazing from in situ experimental channels, so that epilithon responses to nutrients with and without grazing pressure can be studied; and (4) assessment of the ecological implications of nutrient/ epilithon/macroinvertebrate interactions assessed from in-stream experiments. Major achievements of my research, that advance the study of stream ecology, are as follows: · The investigation of the features of nutrient release from terracotta nutrientdiffusing substrates showed that phosphorus does not readily diffuse through terracotta clay, probably because terracotta contains known binding agents for phosphorus, such as iron, and because pores are easily blocked. I concluded that this type of substrate is inappropriate for studying nutrient dynamics and epilithon responses to the nutrient(s) limiting growth. The outcomes of this research has implications for future research using nutrient-diffusing substrates, and of how nutrient limitation information is interpreted from past research using terracotta nutrient-diffusing substrates. · I designed and tested in-stream experimental channels that were functional and provided near natural conditions for studying the interactions between nutrients/ epilithon/macroinvertebrates, without affecting physical variables not tested for. The in situ method developed was successful in simulating 'real world' complexities. Clay paving bricks were used as standardized common surface for community development because their colour, size and surface texture are similar to those of natural stones. · I developed a technique for successfully inhibiting macroinvertebrate grazing from designated areas, using electricity, without affecting flow and light. This technique will enable in-stream herbivory studies to assess the effects of macroinvertebrate grazing pressure on epilithon under natural conditions, including variability in flow, temperature, light and nutrients. It will allow the vexed question of whether epilithon biomass is controlled by bottom-up or top-down processes to be objectively addressed. The construction of in situ experimental channels that simulate natural conditions, combined with the non-intrusive methods of macroinvertebrate exclusion and nutrient addition, resulted in a study design that will facilitate the investigation of biotic responses to nutrients in Australian upland streams. Using the method developed, I showed that variable flows in the upper Thredbo River appear high enough to slough epilithon, but not high enough to dislodge macroinvertebrates. This may mean that in systems such as the Thredbo River that experience frequent low level disturbance, the epilithon is unable to reach equilibrium. There is strong top-down control of epilithon in this stream, with nutrients, temperature and light playing a secondary role. I concluded that natural variability may be more important than previously considered and perhaps this, rather than constancy, should be studied. This thesis adds support to the continuance of multiple factor investigations, and advocates that such studies be conducted under natural conditions so that the results are more relevant to natural systems than from studies conducted in controlled laboratory and outdoor artificial streams. Clearly, the in-stream channels, developed as part of the current research, will allow research that contributes to our understanding of community responses to the physical, chemical and biological processes operating in lotic environments.

Thesis (MScConEcol)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Restoration practices commonly make use of a reference condition in order to restore a site to a better ecological state than it is currently in. The selection process and relevance of the reference condition has not yet been tested in upland Western Cape rivers especially with relation to spatial and temporal scales. This thesis sought to evaluate whether space (longitudinal) and time (temporal) influence riparian plant community composition (laterally), how it influences the community composition and whether these differences impacts the selection of a reference condition used in restoration practices. In order to investigate the role longitudinal position, sites were selected across three longitudinal zones: mountain stream, transitional and upper foothills. Historic sites used in a previous study on riparian vegetation of upland rivers were resampled and datasets used for temporal comparisons between undisturbed sites, sites recovering after clearing of invasive alien plants and sites affected by fire. Riparian vegetation communities showed differences between longitudinal zones, basins and rivers. The species responsible for marginal zone identity (plants in close proximity to the active channel), determined using relative cover abundance varied, with Isolepis prolifera responsible for the group identity in the mountain stream and transitional sites but in the foothills Calopsis paniculata, Drosera capensis and Metrosideros angustifolia saplings were responsible for lateral zone identity. The lower dynamic (transitional between wet and drybank) had no similarities between different longitudinal zones across rivers. In the lower zone Pteridium aqualinum was mostly responsible for the identity. The upper bank had no single species responsible for group identity. The species described to be typical for the reference condition on these particular rivers by other studies were mostly present in the comparable lateral zone but it was however not always responsible for the identity of the specific lateral zone. By comparing selected environmental variables such as horizontal distance from active channel, elevation and substrate calibre with different longitudinal zones’ riparian vegetation species distribution, different combinations were produced. The mountain streams showed the strongest relationship with horizontal distance and elevation in combination to one another and the upper foothills horizontal distance from the active channel was linked most strongly to vegetation positioning. These results confirm the importance of space when attempting to assess, study or restore riparian communities. Temporally, sites had stronger similarity to data collected during the same sampling period than with historic data. Also, the overall relative species abundance did not show significant change to be present at a site scale. The changes in community composition were found to be due to a lateral zone scale variation in species abundance. As expected the undisturbed rivers showed less variation in species responsible for temporal changes than the recovering and fire-exposed rivers. Species responsible for changes in relative abundance at a lateral zone scale were Metrosideros angustifolia, Morella serrata, Brabejum stellatifolium, Isolepis prolifera, Elegia capensis, Prionium serratum and Calopsis paniculata. Due to the species diversity not changing much temporally but the relative abundance of specific species showing much variation over time it can be concluded that the changes are not diversity based but instead driven by changes in relative abundances of species typical for a lateral zone. The spatial and temporal variation in riparian vegetation community composition was found to be significant enough to suggest that the use of a fixed reference condition for all Western Cape rivers would not be feasible due to clear differences between basins. Secondly when selecting a reference site the spatial location of this site should be within the same longitudinal zone since bank shape does influence riparian plant species distribution. Finally the temporal comparison between sites showed high diversity in species abundances but small differences in diversity overall. This would suggest that a general community description specific to 1) where the site is situated and 2) based on the present riparian vegetation community composition within a specific basin may be more realistic and achievable for restoration and environmental management purposes as opposed to using site descriptions from the past and reference sites too far upstream or downstream from the restoration site. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Herstel praktyke maak algemeen gebruik van 'n verwysing toestand om 'n terrein te herstel na 'n beter ekologiese toestand as wat dit tans is. Die keuringsproses en relevansie van die verwysing toestand is nog nie in die boonste gedeeltes van Wes-Kaap Riviere getoets nie, veral met betrekking tot ruimtelike en tydskale nie. Hierdie tesis het gesoek om te evalueer of ruimte (longitudinaal) en tyd (temporaal) rivieroewers plant gemeenskap samestelling (lateraal) beïnvloed en of hierdie verskille die keuse van 'n verwysing toestand in die herstel praktyke beïnvloed. Ondersoek terreine was oor drie longitudinale sones geselekteer: berg stroom, oorgangs en boonste hange terreine. Historiese terreine was weer ondersoek en die datastelle was gebruik vir die temporale vergelykings tussen onversteurde terreine, terreine wat herstel na die skoonmaak van indringer spesies en wat geraak was deur 'n brand. Oewerplantegroei gemeenskappe het verskille tussen longitudinale sones, rivier-kom en rivier takke gewys. Die spesies wat verantwoordelik was vir marginale zone (plante in nabye afstand met die aktiewe rivier kanaal) identiteit, bepaal met behulp van relatiewe dekking hoeveelheid, het gevarieer met Isolepis prolifera verantwoordelik vir die groep identiteit in die berg stroom en oorgangs trerreine, maar in die boonste hange was dit Calopsis paniculata, Drossera capensis en Metrosideros angustifolia boompies wat verantwoordelik was vir die laterale sone identiteit. Die laer dinamiese area het geen ooreenkomste tussen marginale gebiede van verskillende longitudinale sones gehad nie. In die onderste sone was Pteridium aqualinum meestal verantwoordelik vir die groepering se identiteit. Die boonste bank het nie 'n enkele spesie wat verantwoordelik was vir die groep identiteit gehad nie. Die spesies beskryf as tipies vir die laterale sone deur Reinecke et al. (2007) was meestal teenwoordig in die beskryfde laterale sone van hierdie studie, maar dit was egter nie altyd verantwoordelik vir die identiteit van die laterale sone gemeenskap nie. Verskillende lengte sones het gekorreleer met verskillende omgewingsveranderlikes wat sterkste gekoppel kon word aan die verspreiding van spesies. Die bergstrome het die sterkste verhouding met horisontale afstand en hoogte in kombinasie met mekaar gehad en in die boonste hange was horisontale afstand van die aktiewe kanaal die sterkste gekoppel aan plantegroei posisie. Die belangrikheid van ruimte is onmiskenbaar ten opsigte van evaluering, bestudering en die herstel van rivieroewers gemeenskappe. Terreine het sterker ooreenkoms met data gehad wat tydens dieselfde tydperk versamel was, as met historiese data. Die algehele relatiewe spesies hoeveelheid het egter nie beduidende verandering getoon op 'n terrein skaal nie. Soos verwag was het die onversteurde riviere minder temporale variasie in spesies getoon as die herstellende en brand blootgestelde riviere. Spesies wat verantwoordelik was vir die verandering in relatiewe hoeveelhede op 'n laterale sone skaal was M. angustifolia, Morella serrata, Brabejum stellatifolium, I. prolifera, Elegia capensis, Prionium serratum en C. paniculata. As gevolg van die diversiteit van spesies wat nie baie verander het tydelik nie, maar die relatiewe hoeveelheid van spesifieke spesies wat heelwat variasie oor tyd getoon het, kan dit afgelei word dat die veranderinge nie diversiteit gebaseerd was nie, maar eerder gedryf was deur veranderinge in relatiewe hoeveelhede van tipiese spesies in 'n laterale sone. Die ruimtelike en tydelike variasie in oewerplantegroei gemeenskap samestelling was beduidende genoeg om voor te stel dat die gebruik van 'n vaste verwysing toestand vir alle Wes-Kaapse riviere nie haalbaar sou wees nie as gevolg van duidelike verskille tussen riviere. Tweedens, by die kies van 'n verwysing terrein moet die ruimtelike plek van hierdie terrein in dieselfde lengte sone wees aangesien bank vorm 'n invloed op rivieroewer plant verspreiding het. Laaastens, het die tydelike vergelyking tussen terreine hoë diversiteit in spesies verspreidings maar klein verskille in algehele diversiteit gehad. Dit stel voor dat 'n algemene beskrywing van die gemeenskap wat spesifiek op 1) waar die terrein geleë is en 2) gebaseer op die huidige oewerplantegroei gemeenskap samestelling binne 'n spesifieke rivier netwerk dalk meer realisties en haalbaar vir hersteel en bestuurs doeleindes sou wees. Hierdie benadering word verkies bo die gebruik van n terrein beskrywings uit die verlede en verwysing terreine te ver stroomop of stroomaf van die herstel gebied.