Note:

No description available.

No description available.

Bovine coronavirus (BCV) has been previously detected in the enteric and respiratory tracts of cattle and is specifically associated with enteritis and diarrhoea in neonatal calves. Two diagnostic tests, an ELISA and an immunogold EM technique for the detection of BCV in faeces, were developed, optimised and compared with direct EM, immunosorbent EM and haemadsorption-elution-haemagglutination (HEHA). The immunogold EM technique was found to be the most sensitive test followed by the ELISA, HEHA, immunosorbent EM and direct EM. An IF test for detecting BCV in the respiratory tract and a neutralization test for quantifying anti-BCV antibody titres in serum and milk were also developed. Using the immunogold EM technique BCV was demonstrated in 39 of 123 field samples of bovine diarrheic faeces. From 25 of these samples 2 isolates were successfully adapted to grow in HRT 18 cells following initial isolation in bovine fetal tracheal organ culture. These, and three other strains of BCV and a human coronavirus (HCV) strain obtained from other laboratories, were compared in immunofluorescence (IF), haemagglutination inhibition (HAI) and neutralization tests. Polyclonal antisera against these 6 viruses were raised in rabbits. No significant differences between viruses were detected by IF incorporating homologous and heterologous antisera but HCV could be distinguished from the bovine coronaviruses in a cross neutralization test. In this test all BCV isolates were determined to be of one serotype. In the HAI test however, the HCV strain was distinguishable from the 5 BCV strains and differences between the BCV strains were shown. Two monoclonal antibodies prepared against one of the BCV strains distinguished the HCV from the BCV strains in all three tests. These monoclonal antibodies did not distinguish between the 5 BCV strains in the IF or HAI test but did so in the neutralization test. The various strains were also compared at the molecular level using the Western blotting technique. This technique showed no significant differences between the molecular weights or serological reactivity of the structural proteins of these strains. Experimental infection of a gnotobiotic calf with BCV resulted in diarrhoea and fever, but no clinical evidence of disease was seen when 4 conventionally reared colostrum fed calves and 4 gnotobiotic lambs were similarly infected. The oral infection of suckling mice with BCV produced diarrhoea in some animals but a full investigation is required to optimise this model. A prospective epidemiological survey on one farm was carried out and showed Cryptosporidium and BCV to be associated with diarrhoea. Additionally this survey showed that the detection of BCV in the respiratory tract was associated significantly with respiratory symptoms.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

Herein we describe a novel APC population in mice, designated LAPCs. LAPCs are BM-derived myeloid leukocytes, distinctive from other immune cells. As APCs, LAPCs respond to various virus infections including VACV, CBV3 and influenza A virus. Notably, influenza virus-activated LAPCs capture Ag in the lungs, and migrate into the DLN and spleen with delayed kinetics compared to DCs. In the DLN, influenza virus-activated LAPCs co-localize with T cells and selectively induce Th2 effector cell polarization by cell-cell contact-mediated modulation of GATA-3 expression. In support of a role for LAPCs in anti-influenza T2 immunity, adoptive transfer experiments revealed that influenza virus-activated LAPCs selectively augmented Th2 effector T cell responses in the DLN, increased production of anti-influenza immunoglobulin (Ig) including IgE in peripheral blood and increased levels of IL-5 and eotaxin in BAL fluid in recipient influenza infected mice. LAPC recipient mice exhibited exacerbated pulmonary pathology, with delayed viral clearance and enhanced pulmonary eosinophilia. Collectively, these results highlight the importance of LAPCs as novel immuno-modulators of T2 immunity during influenza A virus infection, which is implicated in both immunoprotection and immunopathology. Subsequently, we examined the immuno-modulatory effect of type-I IFN, specifically IFN-on the immune response against pulmonary influenza virus infection. We have provided evidence that a single dose of IFN- (1×105U) augmented DC migration but inhibited LAPC migration into the DLN. mIFN- treatment skewed the immune balance toward T1 immunity, identified as enhanced T1 effector T cell responses (Th1 and CTL) but diminished T2 effector T cell responses (Th2) in influenza virus infected mice. Finally, IFN- treated mice showed accelerated viral clearance and diminished pulmonary eosinophilia in lung tissue compared to control mice. Taken together, these results suggest that anti-influenza T1 and T2 immunity may be modulated differently by DCs and LAPCs, respectively. Furthermore, these results support the therapeutic potential of type I IFNs, especially IFN-, as an alternative antiviral to control both viral replication and immunopathology induced by influenza A virus infection in humans.

Honey has been used for centuries as a medicine to treat various ailments and infections. A large amount of research has established that honey has potent antibacterial activity. However, the sensitivity to honey of viral species that cause infections has been studied in only a small number of cases. The aim of this study was to obtain data to clarify and extend knowledge obtained from these previous studies of honey's antiviral activity, and especially study those viruses that cause localised infections which have limited or no therapy available, which are suitable to treatment with topically applied honey. The susceptible A549 cell line and viral isolates of Adenovirus serotypes 1, 3, and 8, and Herpes simplex virus serotypes 1 and 2, were provided by the Waikato Hospital Virology Laboratory. A number of types of honey were investigated from a range of sources: Manuka honey with high concentrations of methylglyoxal, unique manuka factor activity, and phenolics, Honeydew and Rewarewa honeys which have high antioxidant activity, and Ling Heather honey which is high in phenolic compounds. These honeys were selected due to their range of characteristic activities in order to make comparisons with antiviral activity. A variety of tests using cell culture were developed to evaluate the sensitivity of the viruses to whole honey. Each test scored and monitored the development of morphological changes to the cells, to observe whether the honey treatment can prevent the development of these changes known as viral cytopathic effect. These included tests for: protection, in which the cells were pre-treated with, and iii incubated either with or without honey; prevention, where honey was used to treat infected cells, and in plaque reduction assays, to examine whether it can reduce the resultant number of plaques; and neutralisation, in which the virus was directly exposed to the honey for a defined period. It was found with each type of test using cell culture that many of the honeys studied can lower the severity of viral cytopathic effect or delay its onset compared with the development observed with virus that was not treated with honey. This can suggest that the antiviral activity may be a feature of more than one type of honey. In general the antiviral effect increased with the concentration of honey and time the virus was exposed to it. Manuka honey M116 at a concentration of 10% was effective in preventing the development of viral cytopathic effect of each of virus, after the viruses at concentrations in excess of the tissue culture infectious dose had been exposed to the honey for 8 hours. Enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays were used to measure the effect the successful treatments found in the extended neutralisation experiments had on viral surface proteins necessary for viral entry into the cells. The results using this technique suggested that there was very little virus present in the samples that had been treated with honey and with the untreated virus. Therefore it could not be shown whether the honey was acting via this mechanism. It is concluded from the findings in this study that honey is likely to be an effective antiviral treatment for the therapy of localised viral infections, this needs to be verified by clinical trials.