No description available.

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder, affecting mainly the elderly. One of the most important hallmarks of Parkinson's disease is the loss of neuronal cell bodies containing neuromelanin in the substantia nigra zona compacta, and subsequently, loss of dopamine terminals in basal ganglia nuclei of the brain. The discovery by Hornykiewicz and co-workers that levodopa could successfully treat Parkinson's disease in humans was one of the most important events of medicine in the 20th century. Since loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic function is the basic underlying pathophysiology of this disease, drugs that enhance dopaminergic function in the striatum, including the exogenous precursor levodopa, remain the most effective symptomatic agents in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. However, there are some areas of controversy about levodopa-evoked motor complications (dyskinesias, on-off phenomena) as well as neuroprotective or neurotoxic activity of this drug, etc. In this article the authors try to clarify the molecular mechanisms involved in levodopa action, such as volume transmission - a crucial process for successful levodopa therapy, evidence that serotoninergic neurons may accumulate levodopa and convert it into dopamine as well as some aspects of neuroprotective action of levoda.

L-Dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), the anti-parkinsonian drug affording the greatest symptomatic relief of parkinsonian symptoms, is still misunderstood in terms of its neurotoxic potential and the mechanism by which generated dopamine (DA) is able to exert an effect despite the absence of DA innervation of target sites in basal ganglia. This review summaries important aspects and new developments on these themes. On the basis of L-DOPA therapy in animal models of Parkinson's disease, it appears that L-DOPA is actually neuroprotective, not neurotoxic, as indicated by L-DOPAs reducing striatal tissue content of the reactive oxygen species, hydroxyl radical (HO•), and by leaving unaltered the extraneuronal in vivo microdialysate level of HO•. In addition, the potential beneficial anti-parkinsonian effect of L-DOPA is actually increased because of the fact that the basal ganglia are largely DA-denervated. That is, from in vivo microdialysis studies it can be clearly demonstrated that extraneuronal in vivo microdialysate DA levels are actually higher in the DA-denervated vs. the intact striatum of rats - owing to the absence of DA transporter (i.e., uptake sites) on the absent DA nerve terminal fibers in parkinsonian brain. In essence, there are fewer pumps removing DA from the extraneuronal pool. Finally, the undesired motor dyskinesias that commonly accompany long-term L-DOPA therapy, can be viewed as an outcome of L-DOPAs sensitizing DA receptors (D1-D5), an effect easily replicated by repeated DA agonist treatments (especially agonist of the D 2 class) in animals, even if the brain is not DA-denervated. The newest findings demonstrate that L-DOPA induces BDNF release from corticostriatal fibers, which in-turn enhances the expression of D3 receptors; and that this effect is associated with motor dyskinesias (and it is blocked by D3 antagonists). The recent evidence on mechanisms and effects of L-DOPA increases our understanding of this benefical anti-parkinsonian drug, and can lead to improvements in L-DOPA effects while providing avenues for reducing or eliminating L-DOPAs deleterious effects.

No description available.

Connectomics – the study of neural connectivity – is primarily concerned with the mapping and characterisation of wired synaptic links; however, it is well established that long-distance chemical signalling via extrasynaptic volume transmission is also critical to brain function. As these interactions are not visible in the physical structure of the nervous system, current approaches to connectomics are unable to capture them. This work addresses the problem of missing extrasynaptic interactions by demonstrating for the first time that whole-animal volume transmission networks can be mapped from gene expression and ligand-receptor interaction data, and analysed as part of the connectome. Complete networks are presented for the monoamine systems of Caenorhabditis elegans, along with a representative sample of selected neuropeptide systems. A network analysis of the synaptic (wired) and extrasynaptic (wireless) connectomes is presented which reveals complex topological properties, including extrasynaptic rich-club organisation with interconnected hubs distinct from those in the synaptic and gap junction networks, and highly significant multilink motifs pinpointing locations in the network where aminergic and neuropeptide signalling is likely to modulate synaptic activity. Thus, the neuronal connectome can be modelled as a multiplex network with synaptic, gap junction, and neuromodulatory layers representing inter-neuronal interactions with different dynamics and polarity. This represents a prototype for understanding how extrasynaptic signalling can be integrated into connectomics research, and provides a novel dataset for the development of multilayer network algorithms.

Les neurones dopaminergiques (DAergiques) de l’aire tegmentaire ventrale (ATV) et de la substance noire compacte (SNc) sont impliqués dans de nombreuses fonctions physiologiques telles que la motivation, la récompense, l’apprentissage ou encore le contrôle du mouvement volontaire. Ces neurones sont également connus pour être perturbés dans plusieurs grandes maladies du cerveau telles que la schizophrénie, les maladies associées aux drogues d’abus ou dans la maladie de Parkinson. Des études in vivo ont démontré que la structure des terminaisons axonales DAergiques pouvait être de type « synaptique » et « non-synaptique ». Ces terminaisons dites « non-synaptiques », dépourvues de toute apposition avec un domaine membranaire postsynaptique, semblent représenter la grande majorité des terminaisons axonales établies par les neurones DAergiques. De façon intéressante, certaines des terminaisons synaptiques ont quant à elles, la capacité de co-libérer du glutamate ou du GABA. D’une façon générale, la formation et le maintien des synapses fait intervenir des protéines d’adhésion cellulaire dont les plus courantes sont les neurexines (Nrxn) et les neuroligines (Nlgn). Au niveau présynaptique, ces molécules d’adhésion interagissent avec des protéines de la zone active qui sont impliquées dans la régulation de l’exocytose. Parmi elles, on retrouve RIM1/2, Piccolo/Bassoon, ELKS ou encore Munc-13. Du côté postsynaptique, ces protéines d’adhésion cellulaire interagissent directement avec les protéines d’échafaudages telles que PSD95 ou Géphyrine. Mes travaux de doctorat ont consisté dans un premier temps à caractériser de façon exhaustive les terminaisons axonales établies par les neurones DAergiques. La proportion et la structure moléculaire des terminaisons synaptiques et non-synaptiques ont ainsi été évaluées. Dans un premier article, via l’utilisation d’un système in vitro, nous avons démontré qu’une minorité des terminaisons DAergiques (20%) était de nature synaptique, une proportion totalement différente lorsque comparée avec les neurones glutamatergique ou GABAergiques, dont les terminaisons synaptiques sont très fortement majoritaires (80%). De façon intéressante, la protéine de ZA Bassoon a été retrouvée majoritairement au sein des terminaisons synaptiques suggérant une différence de structure avec les terminaisons non-synaptiques. Finalement, au niveau du mécanisme de formation des synapses, nous avons mis en évidence que la surexpression de la protéine présynaptique Nrxn-1SS4- dans les neurones DAergiques permet d’augmenter la proportion de terminaisons synaptiques alors que la surexpression de la Nlgn-1AB est, quant à elle, capable d’induire une différentiation présynaptique DAergique. Dans un second article, nous avons voulu investiguer plus en détails le rôle des Nrxn dans la synaptogénèse DAergique. Pour ce faire, nous avons pris avantage d’un modèle animal totalement inédit mais absolument fascinant où nous avons évalué l’impact d’une délétion conditionnelle de l’ensemble des Nrxn sur la connectivité DAergique. Dans cette étude nous avons démontré que la densité de synapses excitatrices et inhibitrices établies par les neurones DAergiques n’était pas affectée chez les souris DAT::NrxnsKO et ce en comparaison des animaux de souche sauvage. Dans un deuxième temps, via des enregistrements électrophysiologiques, nous avons évalué la neurotransmission excitatrice et inhibitrice établie par les neurones DAergiques. Les résultats n’ont pas révélé de changement dans la neurotransmission excitatrice mais ont curieusement révélé un renforcement de l’activité synaptique inhibitrice chez les animaux Nrxn DAT::NrxnsKO et ce par rapport aux animaux du groupe contrôle. Finalement, via la mise en place de tests comportementaux, nous avons pu observer que les animaux DAT::NrxnsKO avaient une capacité d’apprentissage et de locomotion identique aux animaux de souche sauvage, cependant, une stimulation pharmacologique du système DAergique par l’amphétamine a révélé d’une diminution significative de la locomotion chez les souris DAT::NrxnsKO, pouvant refléter une baisse de la neurotransmission DAergique en condition non physiologique. Ces travaux de doctorat amènent pour la première fois une nouvelle vision sur la capacité des neurones DAergiques à établir une arborisation axonale majoritairement non-synaptique. Cette thèse démontre que les neurones DA du mésencéphale ont un programme intrinsèque de développement de leur arborisation axonale qui est différent des neurones GABAergiques du striatum et glutamatergiques du cortex. Aussi, au travers de ces travaux, nous montrons clairement que des protéines aussi fondamentales que les Nrxn et les Nlgn ont un impact limité dans la formation, le maintien et le fonctionnement des synapses établies par les neurones DAergiques. / Dopamine (DA) neurons from the substantia nigra compacta (SNc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) are key players of the neuronal circuitry regulating movement initiation, reward and learning. Their functioning and survival are also perturbed in diseases such as schizophrenia, drug abuse and Parkinson’s. The axonal connectivity of DA neurons is particularly intriguing due to the hyperdense nature of the axonal arbor of these neurons, containing a very large number of neurotransmitter release sites. Ultrastructural examination of the axon terminals established by DA neurons failed to identify a tight pre- and postsynaptic coupling at most of release sites, giving rise to the concept of non-synaptic terminals and “diffuse” or volume transmission. Furthermore, it is now well established that a subset of terminals established by DA terminals has the capacity to release other neurotransmitters such a glutamate and GABA. A large literature implicates trans-synaptic proteins including neurexins (Nrxns) and neuroligins (Nlgns) in the development of synaptic contacts. In the presynaptic compartment, these cell adhesion molecules interact with active zone proteins like RIM1/2, Bassoon, ELKS and Munc-13 involved in regulating exocytosis. In the postsynaptic compartment, these cell adhesion molecules closely interact with scaffolding proteins like PSD95 or Gephyrin. In this thesis work, we first performed an exhaustive characterization of axon terminals established by DA neurons in primary co-culture system. We evaluated the proportion and the molecular structure of synaptic and non-synaptic terminals established by VTA and SNc DA neurons. In our first article, using and efficient in vitro system, we demonstrated that DA neurons develop a small proportion of synaptic terminals that is strikingly lower compared to glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons. Interestingly, we discovered that the active zone protein Bassoon is mainly expressed in DA terminals that are in contact or in close proximity to a target cell, and less expressed in non-synaptic DA terminals. Finally, we found that overexpression of Nrxn-1SS4- in DA neurons leads to an increase in the proportion of synapses whereas, overexpression of Nlgn-1A+B is able to trigger a DA presynaptic differentiation of DA neurons, suggesting a key role for these transsynaptic proteins in synapse formation by DA neurons. In a second article, we studied more globally the role of Nrxns proteins in the formation of synapses by DA neurons. We took advantage of a recently introduced triple conditional Nrxn mouse line to selectively delete Nrxns in DA neurons and examine the impact of this gene inactivation on the connectivity of DA neurons. In this part we demonstrated that the density of excitatory and inhibitory synapses density established by DA neurons is not affected by the deletion of all Nrxns, in comparison to the wild type group and does not impair the basic development and axonal connectivity of DA neurons at least, in vitro. In a second set of experiments, using patch-clamp recordings, we evaluated the function of excitatory and inhibitory synapses established by DA neurons in the striatum. GABA and glutamate synaptic currents evoked in the striatal medium spiny neurons by optogenetic stimulation of DA neuron axons revealed that glutamate release was unchanged, but identified a strong tendency for enhanced GABA co-release. Furthermore, using fast scan cyclic voltammetry, we found that the loss of Nrxns was associated with impaired DA transmission in the brain of adult mice, revealed by a reduced rate of DA reuptake after electrically-evoked DA release and with impaired amphetamine-induced locomotion. With this thesis, we bring a new perspective on the capacity of DA neurons to develop an axonal arborization that is mainly non-synaptic. With this work, we provide strong evidence arguing that mesencephalic DA neurons are endowed with an intrinsic developmental program leading them to develop an axonal connectivity that is very different from striatal GABA neurons or cortical glutamate neurons. Ours findings suggest that although Nrxns and Nlgns are unlikely to be the main determinants of on the formation of synapses by DA neurons, that are likely to act as key regulators of DA and GABA signaling by these.