South Africa is an arid country and its growing population is putting freshwater resources under increasing pressure. Natural salinization of freshwater systems is being exacerbated by anthropogenic influences. The National Water Act (No. 36 of 1998) stipulates the need for an ecological Reserve, that quantity and quality of freshwater needed to protect freshwater ecosystems while allowing sustainable use of freshwater resources. Water guidelines do exist in the form of the South African Water Quality Guidelines (DWAF, 1996) and more recently, Jooste and Rossouw (2002) compiled benchmark values for water quality variables marking the boundaries between ecological health classes in the 4-category classification system. Predominantly international toxicity data were used to compile the guidelines and the benchmark values. In addition, there is a paucity of chronic toxicity data nationally and internationally. This thesis showed that it is statistically possible to derive protective chronic endpoints for salinity from acute toxicity data through extrapolation. The Acute to Chronic Ratio (ACR), Two-Step Linear Regression (LRA) and Multi-Factor Probit Analysis (MPA) extrapolation methods were investigated to derive chronic toxicity data from acute toxicity data. The authors of LRA and MPA recommend associating a time independent LCx value in the range of LC₀¸₀₁ to LC₁₀ with a Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNOEC). In addition to published methods, this thesis studied the possibility of equating a time independent LC₅₀ value and subjected to a safety factor of 5 (LRA LC₅₀/5), to the PNOEC. Extrapolated chronic toxicity data where the toxicants are NaCl and Na₂SO₄ were derived for indigenous South African macroinvertebrates. NaCl and Na₂SO₄ are salts associated with salinisation in South Africa. In addition, a chronic salinity toxicity test protocol for an indigenous South African aquatic macroinvertebrate was designed and chronic toxicity test were performed using NaCl and Na₂SO₄ as toxicants. The experimental chronic toxicity data produced were used to validate results from the acute to chronic extrapolation methods. Extrapolated chronic toxicity data were inputted into Species Sensitivity Distribution curves, and concentrations that were predicted to protect 95 % of species (PC95) were compared to the sub-lethality benchmarks proposed by Jooste and Rossouw (2002) for NaCl and Na₂SO₄. This study concluded that the LRA LC₅₀/5 extrapolation method is the most protective and accurate and proposed that LRA replace the ACR method in future guideline development for inorganic salts.

The connections between surface water and groundwater systems remain poorly understood in many catchments throughout the world and yet they are fundamental to effectively managing water resources. Managing water resources in an integrated manner is not straightforward, particularly if both resources are being utilised, and especially in those regions that suffer problems of data scarcity. This study explores some of the principle issues associated with understanding and practically modelling surface and groundwater interactions. In South Africa, there remains much controversy over the most appropriate type of integrated model to be used and the way forward in terms of the development of the discipline; part of the disagreement stems from the fact that we cannot validate models adequately. This is largely due to traditional forms of model testing having limited power as it is difficult to differentiate between the uncertainties within different model structures, different sets of alternative parameter values and in the input data used to run the model. While model structural uncertainties are important to consider, the uncertainty from input data error together with parameter estimation error are often more significant to the overall residual error, and essential to consider if we want to achieve reliable predictions for water resource decisions. While new philosophies and theories on modelling and results validation have been developed (Beven, 2002; Gupta et al., 2008), in many cases models are not only still being validated and compared using sparse and uncertain datasets, but also expected to produce reliable predictions based on the flawed data. The approach in this study is focused on fundamental understanding of hydrological systems rather than calibration based modelling and promotes the use of all the available 'hard' and 'soft' data together with thoughtful conceptual examination of the processes occurring in an environment to ensure as far as possible that a model is generating sensible results by simulating the correct processes. The first part of the thesis focuses on characterising the 'typical' interaction environments found in South Africa. It was found that many traditional perceptual models are not necessarily applicable to South African conditions, largely due to the relative importance of unsaturated zone processes and the complexity of the dominantly fractured rock environments. The interaction environments were categorised into four main 'types' of environment. These include karst, primary, fractured rock (secondary), and alluvial environments. Processes critical to Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) were defined within each interaction type as a guideline to setting a model up to realistically represent the dominant processes in the respective settings. The second part of the thesis addressed the application and evaluation of the modified Pitman model (Hughes, 2004), which allows for surface and groundwater interaction behaviour at the catchment scale to be simulated. The issue is whether, given the different sources of uncertainty in the modelling process, we can differentiate one conceptual flow path from another in trying to refine the understanding and consequently have more faith in model predictions. Seven example catchments were selected from around South Africa to assess whether reliable integrated assessments can be carried out given the existing data. Specific catchment perceptual models were used to identify the critical processes occurring in each setting and the Pitman model was assessed on whether it could represent them (structural uncertainty). The available knowledge of specific environments or catchments was then examined in an attempt to resolve the parameter uncertainty present within each catchment and ensure the subsequent model setup was correctly representing the process understanding as far as possible. The confidence in the quantitative results inevitably varied with the amount and quality of the data available. While the model was deemed to be robust based on the behavioural results obtained in the majority of the case studies, in many cases a quantitative validation of the outputs was just not possible based on the available data. In these cases, the model was judged on its ability to represent the conceptualisation of the processes occurring in the catchments. While the lack of appropriate data means there will always be considerable uncertainty surrounding model validation, it can be argued that improved process understanding in an environment can be used to validate model outcomes to a degree, by assessing whether a model is getting the right results for the right reasons. Many water resource decisions are still made without adequate account being taken of the uncertainties inherent in assessing the response of hydrological systems. Certainly, with all the possible sources of uncertainty in a data scarce country such as South Africa, pure calibration based modelling is unlikely to produce reliable information for water resource managers as it can produce the right results for the wrong reasons. Thus it becomes essential to incorporate conceptual thinking into the modelling process, so that at the very least we are able to conclude that a model generates estimates that are consistent with, and reflect, our understanding (however limited) of the catchment processes. It is fairly clear that achieving the optimum model of a hydrological system may be fraught with difficulty, if not impossible. This makes it very difficult from a practitioner's point of view to decide which model and uncertainty estimation method to use. According to Beven (2009), this may be a transitional problem and in the future it may become clearer as we learn more about how to estimate the uncertainties associated with hydrological systems. Until then, a better understanding of the fundamental and most critical hydrogeological processes should be used to critically test and improve model predictions as far as possible. A major focus of the study was to identify whether the modified Pitman model could provide a practical tool for water resource managers by reliably determining the available water resource. The incorporation of surface and groundwater interaction routines seems to have resulted in a more robust and realistic model of basin hydrology. The overall conclusion is that the model, although simplified, is capable of representing the catchment scale processes that occur under most South African conditions.

Infield rainwater harvesting (IRWH) technology has been used in arid and semi-arid parts of the world and promising results have been achieved in terms of increasing yield. The main aim of this study was to identify socio-economic factors determining the adoption of IRWH technology for enhancing household food security by smallholder farmers. The specific objectives were to assess the level of adoption of IRWH technology using descriptive statistics (mean, frequency and percentages). To determine socio-economic factors influencing adoption of IRWH technology, the binary logistic regression mode l was used. To determine whether adopters of IRWH technology are more food secure than non-adopters, the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) was used as a measure for household food security. For the same objective, to determine socio-economic factors that influence household food security, the binary logistic regression model was also used and adoption of IRWH technology became an independent variable. The study was conducted in Khayalethu, Guquka and Krwakrwa villages in Nkonkobe Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province (EC). The unit of analysis was the individual smallholder farmers practicing agriculture. The availability (accidental) and snowball sampling techniques were used to select 34, 23, 63 respondents from Khayalethu, Guquka and Krwakrwa villages respectively. Since they are non-random, these sampling methods are problematic because of sampling errors. Overall, a sample size of 120 smallholder farmers was targeted for the interviews. Primary and secondary data collected was coded and analysed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 21. Results were presented using graphs, pie charts and tables (including cross-tables). The descriptive results showed that adoption status of IRWH technology was low in these areas, with 79% not adopting the technology. Food insecurity was high amongst the non-adopters with 86%. On the basis of descriptive analysis it can be concluded that any change in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of adopting IRWH technology and household food security. The results from the logistic regression model for the incidence of adoption revealed that 6 out of 16 variables were significant, three at 1% (access to extension services, access to information and farmers’ perception towards the IRWH technology); one at 5% (access to market) and two at 10% (access to hired labour and farm income). For the incidence of household food security, out of 17 variables, 6 were significant, three at 1% (adoption of the IRWH technology, access to extension services and farmers’ perception towards the IRWH technology); two at 5% (access to hired labour and household income) and one at 10% (household size). The empirical findings of this study indicate that there are socio-economic factors influencing adoption of IRWH technology and household food security amongst smallholder farmers. This study recommends that the government should provide extension officers and research stations with the capacity, support and physical means to expose smallholder farmers to the IRWH technology through demonstrations and trainings. The government can also introduce agricultural finance institutions in rural areas to assist the rural smallholder farmers to increase their access to credit. Further, it is recommended that smallholder farmers can expand to the communal croplands in order to gain more land size and work as a co-operative or as an association to ease labour constraints.

Thesis (M. Sc. (Geography)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / In South Africa, inadequate water supply is currently a national crisis hence, referred to as a water stressed country. The study’s aim was to assess water supply constraints in Giyani Township of the Greater Giyani Local Municipality that falls under the Mopani District Municipality. The Constitution of the country recognises water as a constitutional right. However, many households in Giyani Township do not receive regular water supply. In some communities, water infrastructure is available but not frequently maintained and that led to irregularity in water supply. The study used qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Self-administered structured questionnaire that consisted of open-ended and close-ended questions helped to collect primary data from the 382 sampled respondents of Giyani Township. Key Informants Interview (interview of people who are authorities responsible for water supply services) supplied information with regard to water delivery services in Giyani Township. Observation method assisted in the evaluation of the condition of the water supply infrastructures as well as the availability of water on a daily basis. Findings of the study indicated that most residents relied on piped water from Giyani Local Municipality, although water was not always readily available from the municipality. Incorrect billing for water services and delays in completion of water relief projects in addition to natural causes and lack of skilled workers were some of the causes that affected the regular supply of water in the township. The study concluded that Greater Giyani Local Municipality experienced a problem of water service delivery that impact negatively on communities and development as a whole The study recommended that the community should voice out grievances about the irregular water supply and request for further clarifications from the municipality during community meetings.. Keywords: Water, water constraints, water supply, Greater Giyani Local Municipality.

1.1 Background to, and motivation for, the study: The Working for Water programme (WfW) is a public works programme designed to clear South Africa of water-consuming invasive alien tree and plants, and to replace them with low water consuming indigenous species. This would prevent a loss of more than 4000 million cubic metres water per annum from the hydrological cycle (DWAF, 1998). The economic viability of the programme has been established in the Western Cape and Kwazulu-Natal (van Wilgen, Little, Chapman, Görgens, Willems and Marais, 1997; Gilham and Haynes, 2001), but questioned in the Eastern and Southern Cape (Hosking, du Preez, Campbell, Wooldridge and du Plessis, 2002). Hosking et al. (2002) investigated the economic case for the programme by performing a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA), based on increased water yield and livestock potential, on six selected sites in the Eastern and Southern Cape, viz. Albany, Kat River, Pot River, Tsitsikamma, Kouga and Port Elizabeth Driftsands.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A vast literature on the incompatibility of socio-economic development and environmental conservation (also referred to as sustainable development) has developed over the past few years. This study takes on the form of a critical, problemdriven discussion and evaluation of the applicability and viability of the concept of capacity-sharing to the current South African water management regime. Within the study, the complexities involved in the shift from a supply- to demandoriented management strategy are examined in depth. This transition in strategy proves to be problematic for water policy makers and managers because of past management regimes and structures, measurement related problems, incorrect or insufficient definition of criteria needed for demand-oriented approaches and the emotional complexities regarding water use. Developments in water policy are currently at a point where problems are experienced regarding the practical implementation of proposed water demand-oriented policy. The concept of capacity-sharing is explained and discussed in detail, leading to the identification of the applicability to three of the most important problems (basic contradiction within the 1998 National Water Act, initial allocation for market adoption and equity within the market) faced within the transition towards a demand-oriented approach. This study found that the concept of capacity-sharing does hold applicability in addressing the above-mentioned three problems towards the transition to a demand-side management approach. Capacity-sharing, therefore, should be part of this timely transition and the state should make use of the advantages of this concept. To support this view, seven studies are proposed for further research to address the problems as mentioned in section 5.2 of the thesis. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Uitgebreide literatuur aangaande die onversoenbaarheid van sosio-ekonomiese ontwikkeling en omgewingsbewaring (ook volhoubare ontwikkeling genoem) het oor die afgelope paar jaar ontwikkel. Hierdie studie neem die vorm van 'n kritiese, probleemgedrewe bespreking ten opsigte van die toepasbaarheid en relevansie van die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling binne die orde van huidige Suid Afrikaanse waterbestuur, aan. Die vele aspekte van die klemverskuiwing van 'n aanbod- na 'n vraag-georiënteerde waterbestuur-strategie, word ook beklemtoon. Hierdie oorgang is problematies vir waterbeleid-formuleerders en bestuurders as gevolg van vorige waterbestuur-ordes en strukture, meetbaarheid georiënteerde probleme, foutiewe of onvoldoende definieering van watergebruik-regte en die emosionele kompleksiteite van water. Tans, word probleme rakende die praktiese implementering van voorgestelde vraag-georienteerde waterbeleid ervaar. Die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling word in detail verduidelik en bespreek waarvandaan die toepasbaarheid op drie van die belangrikste probleme (basiese kontradiksie binne die 1998 Nasionale Waterwet, aanvanklike verdeling van water gebruik regte vir opname binne die mark en die kwessie van regverdigheid binne die mark) vir die oorgang na 'n vraaggeoriënteerde strategie geïdentifiseer word. Die studie het bevind dat die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling wel relevansie ten opsigte van die bogenoemde drie probleme tydens die oorgang na 'n vraag-georiënteerde strategie, inhou. Kapasiteitsdeling behoort dus deel te vorm van die oorgangsfase na 'n vraag-georiënteerde water bestuur strategie en die staat behoort gebruik te maak van die konsep se voordele. Ter ondersteuning hiervan word sewe studies voorgestel vir verdere navorsing ten opsigte van die probleme soos geïdentifiseer in afdeling 5.2 van die tesis.

Thesis (PhD(Agric) (Agriculture))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The concept of social welfare maximisation directs strategic decision-making within a milieu of integrated planning problems. This study applies the aforementioned statement to decision-making regarding the long-term allocation of bulk-water resources in the Berg Water Management Area of South Africa. Public goods, such as bulk water supply infrastructure, is vulnerable to failures in market and government allocation strategies because both fields are subjected to unaccounted costs and benefits. This implies a measurement problem for the quantification of the total cost/benefit of management options and result in decision-making with incomplete information. Legitimate decision-making depends on reliable and accurate information, and the measurement problem, therefore, poses an obstacle to better social welfare maximisation. A need has been identified to broaden the decision-making context in the Berg Water Management Area to promote the accommodation of unaccounted for costs and benefits in water resource allocation decision-making. This study engaged this need by expanding the temporal and spatial dimensions of the decision-making context. Accordingly, improved indecision-making information and decision-support processes is needed. Spatial expansions manifested in physical expansions of the decision-making boundaries that led to expansions in representation in the decision-making process. Temporal expansions manifested in the consideration of different sequences of bulk supply schemes over time instead of a selection of schemes at the same time. The study incorporated components of economic valuation theory, multi-criteria decision analysis, a public survey and a modified Delphi expert panel technique to account for the increased decisionmaking information load. The approach was applied in the Western Cape province of South Africa and specifically focused on a choice problem regarding different long-term bulk-water resource management options for the area. Two surveys were completed to accommodate these expansions. The first focused on public preference in water allocation management and the second survey utilized a modified Delphi technique. Questions regarding the extend of public participation in long-term water resource allocation decision-making came to the fore and the applicability of economic theory to accommodate public preference as a regulatory instrument, was questioned. A willingness to pay for “greener” water was observed and may be used to motivate a paradigm shift from management’s perspective to consider, without fear of harming their own political position, “greener” water supply options more seriously even if these options imply higher direct costs.

<p>The water resources management regime has shifted from one focusing almost exclusively on augmenting supply to one where ensuring access, equity and sustainability are an integral part of the process. A growing demand for water and the fact that the amount of fresh water is constant raises the impression of water scarcity will occur. Indications are that the notion of access to water for basic needs as well as access to productive water underpins perceptions of scarcity. This thesis interrogated perceptions of scarcity in a small rural community in order to understand the role water can play in developing sustainable livelihoods.</p>

<p>The water resources management regime has shifted from one focusing almost exclusively on augmenting supply to one where ensuring access, equity and sustainability are an integral part of the process. A growing demand for water and the fact that the amount of fresh water is constant raises the impression of water scarcity will occur. Indications are that the notion of access to water for basic needs as well as access to productive water underpins perceptions of scarcity. This thesis interrogated perceptions of scarcity in a small rural community in order to understand the role water can play in developing sustainable livelihoods.</p>

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa is a semi-arid country with an average annual rainfall of 197mm, in comparison with the international average of 860mm per year, of which the available freshwater sources are currently being utilised virtually completely. The water restrictions in the Western Cape during the summer of 2000/2001 and of 2001/2002 are sufficient evidence of this. This threatening water shortage holds far-reaching consequences for the socio-economic development of the country if an active effort is not made to manage the water resources in a sustainable manner. Starting in the 1990s, the concept of integrated catchment management crCM) began to enjoy widespread attention as a mechanism to manage water resources. However, it was primarily forced, state-initiated projects with little direct community involvement that enjoyed a limited amount of success. This study undertook community-driven, integrated catchment management in a relatively small catchment in the Veldwachters River valley in the Stellenbosch area in the Western Cape in order to investigate the effectiveness thereof as a mechanism for sustainable water resource management. The study firstly places the concept of rCM in perspective, after which the study area is demarcated spatially within the South African and the regional context. Community-based action research as research approach provides the techniques to reconcile and integrate the duality of the rCM process, namely the human and physical elements in a catchment, and to successfully involve the community in the process. The first phase of the study entails the gathering of existing and new information and the definition of the environmental status of the catchment area in a situation analysis, which was presented to the community as an information document to initiate public participation. During the second phase, a community partnership was established by means of introductory interviews, correspondence, focus group meetings and public forums. The third and executive phase was characterised by the mobilisation of the community partnership in the execution of strategic planning procedures, such as the formulation of a catchment vision, prioritisation of relevant catchment management issues, the statement of the management objectives and the formulation and implementation of action plans for the management of various issues in the catchment. The conclusion drawn after a thorough evaluation of the course of the study is that the implementation of community-driven integrated catchment management can be successful ina smaller catchment. A few crucial requirements need to be taken into consideration in future applications elsewhere, namely: • That the study area must have a small enough area so that all stakeholders can be involved relatively easily and for a catchment identity and "ownership" of the process to be able to develop; • That the process must initially be facilitated externally until a community partnership has been established and a management committee has been elected, after which the facilitation and management of the process must be handed to the community so that it can finally become completely community driven; • That socio-econornic issues initially will receive more attention than the natural environment, but that these issues need to be utilised to establish the ICM process, after which the natural environment naturally will receive greater priority; and • That the researcher must remain patient, particularly during the second and third phases of the process, as public participation and particularly the establishment of a community-driven process can be slow and exhausting. This case study emphasises that each application of ICM will be unique because the degree of community involvement and the priorities of catchment communities will differ. Communitydriven integrated catchment management is not, under any circumstances, an instant solution for water management and water conservation issues, but it is the only sustainable option. KEY WORDS: catchment management, public/community participation, situation analysis, water resource management, action research. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika is 'n semi-ariede land met 'n gemiddelde reenvalsyfer van 497mm per jaar teenoor die wereldgemiddelde van 860mm per jaar, waarvan beskikbare varswaterbronne tans byna ten volle benut word. Die waterbeperkings in die Wes-Kaap gedurende die somers van 2000/2001 en 200112002 is afdoende bewys hiervan. Hierdie dreigende watemood hou verreikende gevolge vir die sosio-ekonomiese ontwikkeling van die land in, indien daar nie 'n daadwerklike poging aangewend gaan word om die waterhulpbronne volhoubaar te bestuur nie. Sedert die negentigerjare het die konsep van geintegreerde opvanggebiedbestuur (GOGB) as waterhulpbronbestuursmeganisme wye belangstelling begin geniet. Dit was hoofsaaklik afgedwonge, staatsgeinisieerde projekte met min direkte gemeenskapsbetrokkenheid wat beperkte sukses gehad het. Hierdie studie het 'n gemeenskapsgedrewe geintegreerde opvanggebiedbestuur op 'n relatief klein opvanggebied in die Veldwachtersrivier vallei in die Stellenbosch omgewing in die Wes-Kaap ondemeem, ten einde die effektiwiteit daarvan as 'n volhoubare waterhulpbron-bestuursmeganisme te ondersoek. Die studie plaas eerstens die konsep van GOGB in perspektief, waama die studiegebied ruimtelik binne die Suid-Afrikaanse en streekskonteks afgebaken word. Gemeenskapsgebaseerde aksienavorsing as navorsingsbenadering verskaf die tegnieke om die tweeledigheid van die GOGB proses, naamlik menslike en fisiese elemente in 'n opvanggebied, te verso en en te integreer en om die gemeenskap suksesvol by die proses te betrek. Die eerste fase van die studie behels die insameling van bestaande en nuwe inligting en die ornskrywing van die omgewingstatus van die opvanggebied in 'n situasie-analise, wat as inligtingsdokurnent aan die gemeenskap voorgele word om publieke deelname te inisieer. Gedurende die tweede fase is 'n gemeenskapsvennootskap gevestig met behulp van inleidende onderhoude, korrespondensie, fokusgroepbyeenkomste en pub Iieke forums. Die derde en uitvoerende lase is gekenmerk deur die mobilisering van die gemeenskapsvennootskap m die uitvoering van strategiese beplanningsprosedures soos die formulering van 'n opvanggebiedvisie, prioritisering van tersaaklike opvanggebiedkwessies, bestuursdoelwitstelling en die formulering en implementering van aksieplanne vir die bestuur van verskeie kwessies in die opvanggebied. Die gevolgtrekking na die noukeurige evaluering van die verloop van hierdie studie, is dat die implementering van gemeenskapsgedrewe gemtegreerde opvanggebiedbestuur in 'n kleiner opvanggebied wel suksesvol kan wees. 'n Paar beslissende vereistes moet met toekomstige toepassings elders in ag geneem word, naamIik: • Dat die studiegebied oppervlakgewys klein genoeg moet wees sodat alle rolspelers relatief maklik betrek kan word en 'n opvanggebied-identiteit en "eienaarskap" van die proses kan ontwikkel; • Die proses moet aanvanklik ekstem fasiliteer word, totdat 'n gemeenskapsvennootskap gevestig is en 'n bestuurskomitee verkies is, waama die fasilitering en bestuur van die proses aan die gemeenskap oorgegee moet word om uiteindelik ten volle gemeenskapsgedrewe te word; • Dat sosio-ekonomiese kwessies aanvanklik aandag b6 die natuurlike omgewing sal geniet, maar dat hierdie kwessies benut moet word om die GOGB proses te vestig, waama die natuurlike omgewing vanselfsprekend hoer prioriteit sal geniet; en • Dat die navorser veral gedurende die tweede en derde fases van die proses geduld moet behou, omdat publieke deelname en veral die vestiging van 'n gemeenskapsgedrewe proses, tydsaam en vermoeiend kan wees. Hierdie gevallestudie beklemtoon dat elke toepassing van GOGB uniek sal wees omdat die mate van gemeenskapsdeelname en -prioriteite tussen opvanggebiedgemeenskappe sal verskil. Gemeenskapsgedrewe gemtegreerde opvanggebiedbestuur is onder geen ornstandighede 'n kitsoplossing vir waterbestuur en -bewaring nie, maar dit is die enigste volhoubare opsie. SLEUTEL WOORDE: opvanggebiedbestuur, publieke/gemeenskapsdeelname, situasie-analise, waterhulpbronbestuur, aksienavorsing