The Russian Federation has recently implemented a foreign policy strategy aimed at subverting the West’s ability to deter Russia from destabilizing its neighbors. This strategy combines elements of conventional military strategy with “weaponized information” in order to achieve success in the political and military arenas of conflict. “Weaponized Information” goes beyond the “network-centric” warfare envisioned by cyber security experts, focused instead upon the development of “fake news,” disinformation, and encouraging conflicting media narratives. This thesis explores this strategy through Thomas Schelling’s framework of deterrence elucidated in Arms and Influence and uses recent events in Ukraine, Syria, the United States, and Europe to describe the development and implementation of “weaponized information” in 21st Century international conflicts. / Master of Arts

Bacillus anthracis is a soil dwelling microbe with pronounced pathogenic potential. Historically, anthrax has infected livestock and man. In the modern-age, anthrax is a bioterrorism concern with major incidents every decade. While the threat of large scale attacks is currently viewed as unlikely, the threat is consistent and constant. Current methods to defend against such an attack focus on antibiotics and containment of public panic. Antibiotic resistance, while not currently an issue for anthrax, could easily become so with genetically engineered weaponized strains created by rogue states or independent actors. This project evolved from collaborations between the Grose lab and the Robison lab, both housed in the Microbiology and Molecular Biology Department at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah. Two undergraduates in the Grose lab isolated 23 genetically distinct phage that infect the non-pathogenic Bacillus anthracis Sterne strain. Results from spot testing on a diverse library of 11 fully virulent strains that represent the extant genetic diversity of pathogenic B. anthracis in BYU’s BSL-3 facility give credence to the idea that phage could be useful in containing this pathogen. Phage were isolated from environmental samples using enrichment culture, high titer lysates of isolated phage were created, and differential assays were performed. Experiments to show phage differences included electron microscopy, restriction digests, and spot testing using different isolates of B. anthracis. These data identified several novel phage that could infect a wide variety of virulent B. anthracis isolates. Preliminary results also showed most of these phage to be different both morphologically and genetically.We propose that phage therapy deserves further research, public awareness, and increased understanding for governmental regulatory awareness.

In a world witnessing unprecedented levels of forced displacement, the weaponization of migration has emerged as a potent and unexplored tool in the foreign policy arsenals of states and non-state actors. Challenging traditional state-centric perspectives in international relations, this thesis delves into the realm of Coercive Engineered Migration (CEM) employed by armed non-state actors. With a focus on Libya, a key player in the weaponization of migration against the European Union (EU), this study investigates the strategic orchestration of migration flows, coercive mechanisms, and the diplomatic preconditions underpinning these actions. The findings reveal evidence of multiple attempts of CEM against the EU by armed non-state actors in Libya during two distinct periods: 2014-2017 and 2020-2023. Employing coercion by punishment strategies and denial mechanisms, these actors mainly sought legitimacy and resources from the EU. Armed non-state actors gained more leverage compared to state actors due to their non-diplomatic status. This thesis contributes to the existing literature by challenging realist assumptions, diversifying the understanding of non-violent foreign policy strategies employed by armed non-state actors, and highlighting the often-overlooked significance of these actors in the realm of weaponized migration.