I assessed major factors influencing the interactions between the mestizo community and wildlife of the Impenetrable, in the Argentine Chaco, and the ways in which these interactions are influenced by the larger economic and political context. I used a mixed qualitative and quantitative methods approach, between 2001 and 2005. I found that wildlife represented an important food source, especially for the poorer rural households. The importance of wild meat varied across the community and region, in relation to the socioeconomic characteristics of households, village size, forest condition, season, species biology, and cultural preferences. Some species used by local people, primarily white-lipped and chacoan peccaries, and jaguar, were in decline and their range had been reduced by habitat destruction and overhunting, especially in the humid sub-region. These species persisted in areas of low human density, low hunting pressure and scarce development. Harvest of peccaries for food was unsustainable. Characteristics of the resource and of the community explained the lack of incentives for community-based management of peccaries. The resource was too large in relation to the local technology and the community's institutional capacities were scarcely developed. Changes in property right regimes also influenced people-wildlife interactions and were related with species mobility. Acquisition of land title by peasants did not reduce overexploitation of highly mobile resources such as peccaries, which continued to be hunted as open access resources. The national economic collapse of 2001 had a strong influence in the region. Hunting by villagers increased as a result of growing unemployment, whereas peasants reduced their hunting and turned to forest exploitation. Acquisition of land title by non-locals and intensification of ranching and forest exploitation subsequently increased, thereby affecting the livelihoods of local peasants by reducing grazing areas and affecting wildlife by reducing habitat. This study shows how people-wildlife interactions are complex and dynamic, and indicates that conservation measures are unlikely to succeed without considering the biological, cultural, socio-economic, and political factors involved. External factors require especial consideration. In this case, a national change in economic policy produced a local change in land use that is jeopardizing the peasants culture and the region's biodiversity.

This thesis examined the complex socio-ecological dynamics in the Brazilian Amazon, focusing on the mechanisms that allow Amazonians to access natural resources along the gradient of urbanization. While Amazonian conservation and development policies have traditionally targeted rural areas, there is a growing need to consider the interconnectedness between urban, peri-urban (i.e. the area surrounding the urban center) and rural communities as the region urbanizes. The overall research question that guided this thesis research was "How does urbanization affect access to natural resources and how does access affect natural resource use?". We aimed to address key aspects of these relationships and the implications for sustainable development and conservation efforts. The first chapter explored the mechanisms by which rural, peri-urban, and urban populations in the Amazon access natural resources, focusing on the varied resources they use as food. Using the Theory of Access' framework and 33 semi-structured interviews with participants selected by snowball sampling in Manaus and Carauari (Amazonas, Brazil), we identified physical, knowledge, structural, social, and rights-based mechanisms as key to understanding resource access. The findings indicate that materiality (i.e. the presence and quality of a given resource), and knowledge were salient for rural and peri-urban people, who live in close proximity to natural resources, to establish access. Technology, such as mobile phones and internet access, further facilitated exchanges across the urbanization gradient. We also found out that the combination of mobility and social relations resulted in greater access to natural resources for those not living in physical proximity to such resources, for those not recognized as legitimate users, or for those that do not know how to extract natural resources. Across the gradient, people made use of social mechanisms and power to reinforce reciprocity among peers and access food. This study contributed to the advancement of the Access Theory by highlighting that people holding power, because of customary, social, institutional, political, and commercial power, accessed or controlled other people's access to natural resources, despite of legal constraints. By extending the notion of access to natural resources as bundles of diverse structural, knowledge, social, power, and rights-based mechanisms, novel policies can be designed to foster sustainable resource use while addressing power disparities for the development of the Brazilian Amazon. The second chapter examined the prevalence and quantity of wildmeat consumption, barter trade, and monetary trade across rural, peri-urban, and urban areas in the Brazilian Amazon. Through an indirect questioning technique, we surveyed 782 randomly selected households in Manaus and Carauari. We revealed substantial wildlife use throughout the urbanization gradient. In urban households, the rates of wildlife consumption, barter trade, and sale are significant (Manaus: 22%, 17%, 21%; Carauari: 57%, 30%, 7%, respectively), with higher market access in Manaus, the big city. Additionally, we found that wildlife trade occurred in both urban areas assessed, with an estimate of 21% (7-34%: Carauari) and 16% (6-26%: Manaus) of urban households trading wildmeat. Participation of peri-urban households in wildlife trade was high, especially close to Manaus. Results point to a need for inclusive wildlife policies, which regulate subsistence hunting, integrate fish and wildlife management within community-based conservation, implement measures to curtail illegal trade, and promote urban-rural development strategies. Together, these chapters highlight the importance of a collaborative and inclusive approach to conservation in the Amazon, recognizing the interconnectedness of rural and urban communities. To foster sustainable development, conservation strategies must prioritize equitable access to natural resources and promote the active participation of rural, peri-urban and urban inhabitants in shaping conservation outcomes. / Master of Science / In this study, we examined how people in the Brazilian Amazon access natural resources. Imagine living in a place with rich rainforests, rivers, and unique animals. Immersed in this forest matrix are one big city and several small towns where people have markets to obtain their food, commute to work and school in crowded roads, use mobile technologies such as internet and mobile banking. In this thesis, we studied how Amazonian people in different places get the food they eat, like animals, fish, açaí berries, and Brazil nuts. In order to do so, we asked people living in the rural and highly forested areas, in the areas within and around a small town, Carauari, and one big city, Manaus, how they were able to obtain these foods. We divided this study in two chapters, which are presented below: Chapter 1: How people obtain natural resources We talked to people in different parts of the Amazon, from rural villages to a big city, to understand how they get access to natural resources as food. We found that people who live close to the resources, such as those in the rural areas, can easily collect food. Others use their knowledge and social connections, sharing food with friends, family, and people they trust. Technology, such as mobile phones and the internet, also helps them exchange resources. People frequently move among the countryside and the city to access natural resources. Influential individuals, such as politicians, environmental agents, and merchants, can get natural resources whenever they want or easily control what others can access. Our findings highlight the importance of social relations, power, and technology in accessing natural resources and suggest new policies to promote fair and sustainable use in the Amazon. Chapter 2: Wildlife in the big city, in the small town, and in the rural areas We also looked at the amount of wild meat from birds, mammals, and river turtles and tortoises that people consumed, sold, or exchanged with others. Around a quarter of families in the big city, Manaus, and more than half of the families in the small town of Carauari consumed wild meat. We also found that they may share or sell them, especially in the surrounding areas of the big city, where the amount of people demanding wild meat can be high. This can be a problem for wildlife and for people if there is not enough meat for everyone to eat, share or trade. So, to create a sustainable pathway for wildlife and people, we suggested conservation policies that: promote the inclusion of city people in sustainable plans for wildlife, make the use of people's contribution in strategies to protect wildlife, and that ensure that everyone has what to eat as an ally of wildlife conservation. Conclusion: Working together for the Amazon Conserving the Amazon rainforest is a team effort. Rural and city communities are connected, and we must share resources fairly. By doing this, we can help the Amazon thrive while taking care of its people.