Thesis--University of Michigan. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.S.) in Wildlife Ecology--University of Maine, 2006. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 130-146).

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Pennsylvania State University, 2006. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p.157-162) and index. Also available online.

<p> Floodplain forests along the Upper Mississippi River are known to provide valuable habitat for many species of migrating songbirds, including the Cerulean Warbler (<i>Setophaga cerulea</i>) and other species of concern. The forested islands of the confluence region where the Illinois and Missouri Rivers join the Mississippi vary greatly in their structure and composition, providing a variety of habitats for migrating bird species. While past studies have looked at the richness and diversity of bird species across gradients of forest structure, very few have determined which species are characteristic of certain forest types. Effective management and conservation of these lands by state and federal agencies requires that managers understand patterns of species use in these different forest communities. The objectives of this study were (1) to discover how bird community composition varies throughout the floodplain, (2) to determine which vegetation factors, structural or floristic, influence the composition of bird communities, and (3) to identify any species indicative of certain habitat types. Using a protocol developed through a partnership with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers&mdash;St. Louis District, the Audubon Center at Riverlands, and the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, 10 minute avian point count surveys were conducted from May 15 &ndash; June 30 at 95 survey points located throughout the forested areas of the Upper Mississippi River floodplain. Data collected during the 2017 surveys were added to point count data from the 2015 and 2016 survey seasons. An invaluable tool developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers&rsquo; forestry division, the Forest Management Geodatabase (FMG) was used to analyze structural complexity and vegetation characteristics at each avian point count site, including canopy height, basal area, tree species richness, and understory height. Differences in bird species richness across values of canopy height, basal area, understory height, and tree species richness were explored and tested using single-factor ANOVA. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) was used to summarize the pattern of avian community composition among sites and analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) tested for differences in avian communities among forest types. Bird species richness did not differ significantly across values of any of the four forest variables tested. NMDS and ANOSIM found that both canopy height and basal area significantly affected bird community composition while tree species richness and understory height had no effect. Indicator species analysis was then used to identify those species that characterized certain categories of canopy height and basal area. Indicator species analysis found 21 species to be indicators across four discreet categories of canopy height and 23 species to be indicators across 4 categories of basal area. Indicator species of note included five focal species: Indigo Bunting, Prothonotary Warbler, American Redstart, Warbling Vireo, and Red-shouldered Hawk. Warbling Vireos were indicators for sites with canopy heights less than 9 meters, while Prothonotary Warblers were characteristic of sites with the largest values of basal area (> 75 m²/ha). These focal species are chosen by the Audubon Center at Riverlands and are deemed important to the region or species of concern, making them targets of conservation. The knowledge of bird species-habitat relationships gained from this study is critical for the successful management of floodplain forest in order to benefit Neotropical migratory bird species on the Upper Mississippi River System.</p><p>

<p> Population genetics of white-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus </i>) have been influenced through human actions including the translocation of deer from across the United States in the 1900s and, recently, the creation of the captive-cervid industry, which uses animal husbandry to manipulate genetic variation. To assess the effects of these actions, I studied the genetic variation of free-range and captive populations of deer across the southcentral U.S. using a 14 microsatellite panel. In free-range populations I found genetic structure that divided deer west to east along the Mississippi River. Additionally, I found that captive populations were genetically distinct from geographically proximate free-range populations. However, after 2 generations of hybridization, this distinction disappeared. Finally, using both Bayesian clustering and multivariate approaches, I was able to identify a non-native individual from local freerange populations in southern Mississippi. Using these methods, wildlife managers can further investigate cases of hybridization between non-native deer and free-range populations.</p><p>

<p> Non-habituated coyotes (<i>Canis latrans</i>) avoid direct interactions with humans. Reliance on human food sources has been linked to gradual habituation, a precursor to conflict and attacks on domestic pets and humans. Diet and activity patterns of urban coyotes inhabiting natural fragments in Long Beach, CA were monitored through scat collection and camera trapping over a year (Aug 2016 &ndash; Aug 2017). Local urban coyotes are relying predominately on natural foods, with an increase in mammalian prey in the wet season and an increase in vegetation and insect consumption in the dry season. Anthropogenic items, food and food related inedible items, appeared in 14% of scats overall, with no significant seasonal change. Cat remains were found in 14% of scat samples, but only triggered cameras once throughout the 2,857 camera nights of the study. Coyote activity was centered on nights in both seasons, with greater dawn activity in the dry season, indicating an avoidance of peak human activity. This reliance on natural foods and avoidance of human activity reduces the opportunities for human-wildlife conflicts in our local area.</p><p>

<p> Southern flying squirrels (SFS; <i>Glaucomys volans</i>) are known kleptoparasites on the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker&rsquo;s (RCW; <i> Picoides borealis</i>) cavities and cost land managers time and money to control, and the ecology of SFS in habitats managed for RCWs is poorly understood. This study is designed to obtain a better understanding of the general ecology of SFSs surrounding RCW habitat and provide possible non-lethal deterrent methods to prevent harmful interactions between SFSs and RCWs. Spatially-explicit capture-recapture showed generally higher SFS densities and habitat associations outside of RCW cluster partitions. Stable isotope analysis of SFS diets across Mississippi and Alabama revealed a narrow dietary breath relative to food items, thus habitat management may still be viable option to control SFSs. Lastly, investigation of odor deterrents resulted in the greatest avoidance of cavities containing gray rat snake (<i>Pantherophis spiloides </i>) feces and warrants further investigation.</p><p>

<p> Unregulated hunting and habitat loss led to a near extirpation of moose (Alces alces) in New Hampshire in the 1800s. After state protection in 1901, the estimated population increased slowly to &sim;500 moose in 1977, then increased rapidly in the next 2 decades to &sim;7500 following an increase in browse habitat created by spruce budworm (<i>Choristoneura fumiferana </i>) and related timber salvage operations, and then halved from 1998-2016 despite highly available optimal habitat. The declining population was partially related to the specific management objective to reduce moose-vehicle collisions, and a possible change in deer hunter and moose behavior that influence population estimates. But given the substantial decline in productivity and condition of cows, and frequent episodes of high calf mortality in April, the primary cause of decline was presumed to be is an increase in winter tick abundance. </p><p> This study examined the relationships among moose density, optimal habitat, weather/ground conditions, winter tick abundance, and natal dispersal in northern New England. Comparing movement data from the previous (2002-2006) and current (2014-2016) productivity studies in New Hampshire and Maine, the distance of natal dispersal, home and core range size, and home and core range overlap did not significantly (<i>P</i> > 0.05) change despite an increase in optimal habitat and a decrease in moose density.</p><p> Geographic changes in tick abundance were related to an interaction between moose density, and the onset and length of winter. Annual changes in tick abundance in northern New Hampshire are driven by desiccating late summer conditions, as well as the length of the fall questing season. Lower precipitation (6.4 cm) and higher minimum temperatures (9.8 &deg;C) specifically concentrated during larval quiescence from mid-August through mid-September reduces winter tick abundance and the likelihood of an epizootic event. The onset of winter, defined by the first snowfall event (> 2.54 cm), influenced the length of the questing season relative to the date of long-term first snowfall event (14 November). In the epizootic region, average winter tick abundance on moose harvested in mid-October indicated a threshold of 36.9 ticks, above which an epizootic is like to occur unless an early snowfall event shortened the fall questing season. Optimal habitat created by forest harvesting was produced at an annual rate of 1.3% (1999-2011) and is not considered limiting in northern New Hampshire, but likely concentrates moose density locally (&sim;4 moose/km²) facilitating the exchange of winter ticks. In northern New Hampshire, snow cover late into April did not reduce tick abundance in the following year and cold temperatures (&lt; 17 &deg;C) that induced replete adult female mortality are extremely rare in April.</p><p> Given a continuation of warming climate and conservative moose harvest weather conditions and high local moose densities will continue to favor the life cycle of winter ticks, increasing the frequency of winter tick epizootics and shift the epizootic region slowly northward. Conversely, temporary reduction of moose density may substantially reduce parasite abundance and support a healthier and more productive moose population.</p><p>

<p> The Rusty Blackbird (Euphagus carolinus) is a migratory songbird that breeds in and near the boreal wetlands of northern New England and Canada. Although the Rusty Blackbird was once common, the species has declined by an estimated 90% since the 1960&rsquo;s (Greenberg et al. 2010). I used single-season occupancy analysis to model breeding Rusty Blackbirds&rsquo; use of 60 beaver (Castor canadensis) influenced wetlands in Coos County, New Hampshire and Oxford County, Maine. I conducted three 30 minute detected/ not detected surveys, surveyed food availability and foraging habitat, and digitized each survey wetland. Rusty Blackbirds&rsquo; use of wetlands was best predicted by the site covariates mud and invertebrate abundance and detectability was best predicted by survey period. Probability of wetland use decreased with increasing mud cover and increased with increasing aquatic invertebrate abundance. I recommend that future researchers survey for Rusty Blackbirds for 30 minute periods to maximize survey coverage.</p><p>

<p> Lyme disease is the most common infectious disease spread by black-legged ticks in the Northern Hemisphere. Lyme disease is a vector-borne zoonotic disease typically caused by bacterial spirochetes of the species Borrelia burgdorferi. The primary vector of Lyme disease in the Midwestern and eastern United States is <i>Ixodes scapularis</i>, the deer or black-legged tick. Although there are several preventative measures against ticks that carry Lyme disease, such as public education regarding personal protection (e.g., wearing light colored clothing, tucking pants into socks, wearing repellent, promptly inspecting oneself to remove ticks, getting pets vaccinated) and recommended control measures, it is important to understand how the disease is transmitted and which factors increase the potential risk of contracting the disease. Even with these preventative measures, which are not necessarily available worldwide, tick-borne diseases are increasing both in numbers and impact to the overall human population, and there are still several knowledge gaps and conflicting findings that need to be elucidated. For these reasons, there exists a need for further research on Lyme disease ecology to identify steps necessary to decrease disease prevalence and reduce human exposure. I conducted a field study on the Cantonment Area of Fort Drum Military Installation, New York, which is representative of a suburban community with multiple cover types. From May 2015&ndash;November 2016 I surveyed the Cantonment Area to evaluate the basic distributions of <i>Ixodes scapularis </i> and small mammal host species, their relationships with vegetative characteristics, and associated Lyme disease apparent prevalence. This will allow resource managers to assess and communicate the likelihood of encountering a Lyme-positive tick and to take necessary actions to minimize that risk. Specifically, our objective was to assess the apparent prevalence of Lyme disease based on the distributions and indice of abundance of the vector and host populations on Fort Drum. </p><p> I used tick drags to evaluate black-legged tick temporal and spatial distributions in six different cover types discriminated by developmental stage. Total index of tick abundance was related to (1) temperature, (2) humidity, (3) coarse woody debris, (4) leaf litter depth, (5) tree species richness (6) average tree dbh, and (7) patch size. Adult index of abundance was greatest in the spring and fall, while nymph index of abundance was greatest in early summer and larval index of abundance was greatest at the end of summer. Tick and Lyme-positive tick indices of abundance were greatest in the coniferous and mixed cover type and lowest in the shrub and deciduous cover type. Overall Lyme disease apparent prevalence on the Cantonment Area of Fort Drum was 35% (434/1246). These results provide objective criteria for understanding a baseline of tick distributions on a temporal and spatial scale, and assist in developing management recommendations to decrease Lyme disease apparent prevalence on the landscape. </p><p> I used Sherman and Tomahawk traps to capture individuals from the overall small mammal host community during June&ndash;August. The small mammal community was composed mostly of <i>Peromyscus</i> sp. (n = 79; 38%), chipmunk (n = 59; 28%), red squirrel (n = 33; 16%), gray squirrel (n = 18; 9%). Trapping success, as well as Simpson&rsquo;s and Shannon&rsquo;s indices of diversity were greatest in the developed and coniferous forest cover types. Indices of abundance of small mammals were greatest in the developed cover type, followed by coniferous forest. We modeled the relation between estimated index of abundance of ticks with the estimated index of abundance of all small mammal host species, as well as the relationship between estimated index of abundance of Lyme-positive ticks and small mammal host Simpson&rsquo;s and Shannon&rsquo;s indices of diversity. Although <i>Peromyscus</i> sp. had a greater number of individuals with tick burdens, there was significantly greater estimated index of abundance of Lyme-positive tick burdens on chipmunks. Furthermore, a significantly greater proportion of sampled chipmunks (58%) had Lyme-positive ear punches. </p><p> My results suggest that habitat management in the coniferous and mixed forest that target vector and host habitat is necessary in order to decrease Lyme disease prevalence and reduce risk of human exposure. Recommendations such as removal of the leaf/pine litter and coarse woody debris, which provide stable microhabitat for ticks and small mammals alike, a selective cut of large conifer trees, allowing sunlight and wind penetration that encourages tick desiccation, and creating and mowing grassland barrier habitat between human developed areas and forested areas are possible solutions for decreasing Lyme disease prevalence and human risk of exposure on the landscape. Public education seminars regarding black-legged tick spatial and temporal distributions, as well as explaining recommended control measures for personal property should also be developed in order to communicate Lyme disease risk to residents on Fort Drum Military Installation.</p><p>