Thesis (MMil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Over the last forty years Africa has been one of the most conflict-ridden regions in the world,
resulting in untold human suffering. It has been estimated that between 1955 and 1999 some
nine to ten million people have died as a result of violent conflict in Africa. However, those
suffering the most in these wars are not merely the defenceless victims of conflict, but also its
active perpetrators. More than 120 000 children under the age of 18 years have been forced or
recruited to participate in armed conflicts across Africa. Although the use of children in armed
conflict is not a new phenomenon, it has never been as widespread and as brutal as during the
past decade.
Governmental organisations, non-governmental organisations, academic institutions, security
institutes and the media have conducted extensive research on the phenomenon of child
soldiers, specifically focusing on the demobilisation and reintegration of child combatants.
Surprisingly, not much research has been conducted on why particular states are more prone to
utilise these little soldiers than others.
This thesis attempts to fill that gap by analysing the circumstances under which children are
utilised as soldiers in Africa. This aim is divided into three subdivisions, namely to describe the
type of states in which children are utilised as soldiers, to analyse the conflicts in which child
soldiers are utilised, and to describe the socio-economic conditions that urge children to take up
arms.
An analysis of the child soldier-phenomenon suggests that it transpires in weak states. These
states exhibit very distinct characteristics, including serious problems of legitimacy, the absence
of one cohesive national identity, the presence of opposing local strongmen, high levels of
institutional weakness, economic underdevelopment, and a vulnerability to external international
forces. The weakness of these states is created by the fragmentation of social control amongst
various social organisations, which is in turn caused by the expansion of the world economy
from Europe and also by colonialism. This fragmentation poses immense challenges to state
leaders and forces them to adopt very distinct political policies, which put certain limitations on
the process of state-making.
In response to this, leaders have adopted a number of social, political and economic strategies.
These, together with the socio-economic conditions - specifically poverty - within weak states
often create civil violence. These strategies include political centralisation, authoritarianism,
ethnic politics, the manipulation of democratic processes and mechanisms, patronage politics and the manipulation of state economic structures and policies. However, in order to
successfully execute these strategies, rulers need wealth-creating resources, which usually
result in the exploitation of scarce natural resources. Warlords and local strongmen also exploit
resources to purchase arms to combat both government forces and opposing strongmen. In
addition, large international private companies cash in on the financial advantages accrued from
conflict. This leads to the formation of entrenched war economies. In the end then, these wars
becomean excuse to plunder natural resources for private enrichment.
A very distinct characteristic of these conflicts is the widespread use of child soldiers. All the
armed groups in Africa's wars, including government armed forces, paramilitary groups and
armed opposition groups, are to a greater or lesser extent guilty of recruiting, forcefully
conscripting, press-ganging and deploying child soldiers.
However, states that utilise child soldiers all exhibit similar socio-economic characteristics.
Poverty is endemic. Famine is widespread and magnifies the problems caused by war and
poverty even further. The provision of medical and health care is insufficient because of the
vast number of war wounded and the destruction of hospitals and clinics. This is also
aggravated by the high numbers of HIV/AIDS sufferers. Schools are destroyed, educational
systems are often poorly developed and illiteracy is widespread. In addition, due to years of
war and civil unrest, millions of people are displaced and forced to become refugees. These
socio-economic characteristics create the ideal breeding ground for the recruitment of child
soldiers. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Oor die afgelope veertig jaar was Afrika een van die mees konflikgedrewe streke in die wêreld
wat op onbeskryflike menslike lyding uitgeloop het. Dit is bereken dat tussen 1955 en 1999
ongeveer nege tot tien miljoen persone gesterf het as gevolg van die gewelddadige konflikte in
Afrika. Maar diegene wat die meeste in sulke oorloë gely het, was nie maar net die weerlose
slagoffers van die konflik nie, maar hulle was inderdaad ook aktiewe deelnemers daaraan. Meer
as 120 000 kinders onder die ouderdom van 18 jaar is gedwing of gewerf om aan gewapende
konflik regoor Afrika deel te neem. Alhoewel die deelname van kinders aan gewapende konflik
nie 'n nuwe verskynsel is nie, was dit nog nooit so wydverspreid en so brutaal soos tydens die
afgelope dekade nie.
Regeringsorganisasies, nie-regeringsorganisasies, akademiese instellings, sekerheidsinstellings
en die media het uitgebreide navorsing onderneem oor die verskynsel van
kindersoldate, en spesifiek gefokus op die demobilisering en herintegrasie van kinderkrygers.
Verbasend genoeg is nie veel navorsing gedoen oor waarom spesifieke state meer gereed
staan om hierdie klein soldaatjies aan te wend as andere nie.
Hierdie tesis poog om hierdie kennisgaping te vul deur die omstandighede waaronder kinders
as soldate in Afrika aangewend word, te analiseer. Die doel hiermee word in drie onderafdelings
verdeel, naamlik om die tipes state te beskryf waarin kinders as soldate aangewend word, om
die konflikte te analiseer waarin kindersoldate gebruik word en ook om die sosio-ekonomiese
omstandighede te beskryf wat kinders aanspoor om die wapen op te neem.
'n Analise van die kindersoldaatverskynsel dui aan dat dit in swak state voorkom. Hierdie state
openbaar besonderse kenmerke, insluitende ernstige probleme rakende legitimiteit, die
afwesigheid van 'n enkele samebindende nasionale identiteit, die aanwesigheid van plaaslike
sterk leiers, hoë vlakke van institusionele swakhede, ekonomiese onderontwikkeling en In
blootstelling aan eksterne internasionale kragte. Die swakhede van hierdie state het ontstaan
deur die fragmentering van sosiale beheer onder verskeie sosiale organisasies, wat op hul
beurt veroorsaak is deur die uitbreiding van die wêreldekonomie vanuit Europa en ook deur
kolonialisme. Hierdie fragmentering gee aanleiding tot ontsaglike uitdagings vir staatsleiers en
dwing hulle om onderskeidende politieke beleidsrigtings toe te pas wat weer sekere beperkings
op die proses van staatsvorming plaas.
In antwoord hierop het leiers 'n aantal sosiale, politieke en ekonomiese strategieë aanvaar.
Tesame met die sosio-ekonomiese omstandighede - en spesifiek armoede - skep hierdie strategieë dikwels burgerlike geweld binne swak state. Sulke strategieë sluit in politieke
sentralisasie, outoritêre oorheersing, etniese beleidsrigtings, die manipulering van demokratiese
prosesse en meganismes, die politiek van beskerming en begunstiging, asook die manipulering
van die staat se ekonomiese strukture en beleidsrigtings. Maar om hierdie strategieë suksesvol
uit te voer, benodig die heersers welvaartskeppende hulpbronne wat gewoonlik uitloop op die
uitbuiting van skaars natuurlike hulpbronne. Gewapende aanvoerders en plaaslike
onderdrukkers plunder ook hulpbronne om wapens aan te skaf om sowel regeringsmagte asook
opponerende onderdrukkers te beveg. Daarby trek internasionale private maatskappye ook
voordeel uit die finansiële opbrengste wat uit konflik verkry word. Dit alles lei tot die
totstandkoming van verskanste oorlogsekonomieë. In die finale analise word hierdie oorloë
bloot 'n verskoning om natuurlike hulpbronne vir eie verryking te plunder.
'n Baie onderskeidende kenmerk van hierdie konflikte is die wydverspreide aanwending van
kindersoldate. AI die gewapende groepe in Afrika se oorloë, insluitende regerings se
gewapende magte, paramilitêre groepe en gewapende opposisiegroepe, is almal tot mindere of
meerdere mate skuldig aan die werwing, gewelddadige rekrutering en aanwending en ook die
ontplooiing van kindersoldate.
State wat kindersoldate gebruik, toon almal soortgelyke sosio-ekonomiese kenmerke. Armoede
is endemies. Hongersnood is wydverspreid en vererger die probleme wat deur oorloë en
armoede veroorsaak is. Die voorsiening van mediese- en gesondheidsorg is onvoldoende as
gevolg van die hoë aantal HIVNigslyers. Skole is vernietig, onderwysstelsels is dikwels
onderontwikkeld en ongeletterdheid is wydverspreid. As gevolg van jare se oorloë en burgerlike
onrus word miljoene mense verder ook uit hul huise gedryf en gedwing om vlugtelinge te word.
Hierdie sosio-ekonomiese kenmerke skep die ideale teelaarde vir die werwing van
kindersoldate.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:netd.ac.za/oai:union.ndltd.org:sun/oai:scholar.sun.ac.za:10019.1/53716 |
| Date | 12 1900 |
| Creators | Van Niekerk, Magdaleen |
| Contributors | Breytenbach, Willie, Nel, Ananda, Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Military Science. Dept. of Political Science. |
| Publisher | Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University |
| Source Sets | South African National ETD Portal |
| Language | en_ZA |
| Detected Language | Unknown |
| Type | Thesis |
| Format | xiii, 87, xiv p. |
| Rights | Stellenbosch University |
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