Emotion research is an important research topic, thus making the measurement of emotion in the
workplace crucial. In attempting to study, understand and measure the role of emotions in the
human condition, various researchers have identified different theoretical models to manage the
information they have gathered and the observations they have made. In order to study or
scientifically investigate any human behaviour, it is essential that such behaviour can be
measured, if not quantitatively, then at least qualitatively.
However, what one finds with regard to emotion research and measurement are two–dimensional
models. The existing affect has been described with a choice of two dimensions and structures,
i.e. circumplex, positive and negative affect, tense and energetic arousal, and eight combinations
of pleasantness and activation. These two dimensions and structures measure a person’s
experiences and, thereafter, report them. The question is if these two–dimensional emotion
models are sufficient to cover the broad and often complex dynamics of emotions.
The start of multiple–emotion dimension models were reported by researchers, who identified a
three–dimensional structure in the emotion domain that is suggestive of the Evaluation–Potency–
Activation (EPA) dimensions in the connotative or affective meaning of words. However, in
recent studies the sufficiency of two–dimension models to comprehensively investigate emotions
was questioned. The three–dimensional emotion model was replicated in cross–cultural similarity sorting studies by other researchers. The similarity sorting studies also indicate the importance of
studying emotions in specific cultural contexts. Studying emotion in different cultures is
especially relevant in a country such as South Africa that has a variety of cultures and eleven
official languages.
Researchers followed an approach that studied the meaning of emotion in different cultural
groups in the context of 144 emotion features using a componential emotion theory approach.
Researchers argue in the groundbreaking research that was published in Psychological Science
that emotion meaning has more than only two dimensions. The approach postulated by
researchers was tested in a student population of three language groups, namely Dutch–, Englishand
French–speaking students. According to researchers this is an empirical and theoretical
method to study the meaning of emotions across cultures. However, apart from studying the
meaning of emotions in specific cultural groups, research also attempts to determine the meaning
of emotion in the natural contexts in which they occur. The relevant natural contexts for the field
of Industrial Psychology are the work contexts. It is therefore also important to investigate the
categories of emotion episodes in the work environment.
The general goal of this study was therefore a) to investigate the emotion lexicon in the white
Afrikaans–speaking working adult language group, b) to determine the cognitive emotion
structure of this cultural group, c) to investigate the meaning of emotion as comprehensively as
possible (multidimensional models of the meaning of emotion), and d) to determine the meaning
and content of emotion episodes in the workplace.
Research Article 1
The research was subsequently presented in two independent phases. Firstly, a free listing of
emotion terms was compiled, and secondly the emotion terms were prototypically rated by
Afrikaans–speaking people in South Africa. Both of these were then used as measuring
instruments. A survey was designed to explore the research objectives utilising availability
samples in two studies. The participants in the free–listing (N=70) and in the prototypicality
(N=70) study consisted of native Afrikaans–speaking employees. The sample consisted of
participants from the white ethnic group speaking Afrikaans within the Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Free State, Mpumalanga, North–West and KZN provinces and use was made of an availability
sample.
After conducting the research, the emotion terms with the highest frequency, as identified during
the first study, the free listing task, were to be happy (gelukkig wees), be sad (hartseer wees),
love (liefde), anger (kwaad) and hateful (haatlik). The emotion terms with the lowest scores as
identified during the free listing were uncomfortable (ongemaklik), painful (seer), be hurt
(seergemaak wees), sympathetic (simpatiek) and shout/yell (skreeu). Correspondingly, the five
(5) prototypical terms with the highest scores in Afrikaans were nice (lekker), fed–up/had enough
(gatvol/“genoeg gehad”), loveable (liefdevol), anger (kwaad) and to be scared (om bang te
wees). The five (5) least prototypical terms from the list generated in the free listing task were:
unstable (onvas), bashfulness (skugterheid), captivation (geboeidheid), envy (naywer) and
delight (opgetoënheid).
From the information obtained in this research it was revealed that the emotion terms nice
(lekker), fed up/had enough (gatvol/“genoeg gehad”) and loveable (liefdevol) are at this stage
unique to the white Afrikaans language group. These terms had not been reported in any
previously conducted prototypical studies. The results of this study contribute to a cross–cultural
understanding of the emotion concepts within the Afrikaans–speaking language groups in South
Africa.
Research Article 2
A survey design was used to achieve the research objectives utilising availability samples in a
series of one study. The participants of the Similarity study (N=131) consisted of native
Afrikaans–speaking employees. The sample consisted of participants from the white ethnicity
group speaking Afrikaans within the Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Free State, Mpumalanga, North–
West, KZN and Northern Cape provinces and use was made of an availability sample.
Results of Multidimensional Scaling revealed a three–dimensional cognitive emotion structure.
The first dimension was the evaluation–pleasantness dimension. This dimension evaluates the
pleasantness versus the unpleasantness of an emotion. This dimension is characterised by intrinsic appraisals of pleasantness and goal conduciveness and action tendencies of approach
versus avoidance. The second dimension that emerged was a power–control dimension. This
dimension is characterised by appraisals of control, how powerful or weak a person feels when a
particular emotion is experienced. This includes feelings of dominance or submission, the
impulse to act or withdraw and changes in speech and parasymphatic symptoms. The third
dimension which emerged was an activation–arousal dimension. According to other researchers
this arousal dimension is characterised by sympathetic arousal, e.g. rapid heartbeat and readiness
for action.
This study produced a cognitive emotion structure in a white Afrikaans–speaking working adult
population in South Africa. To add value to the field of Industrial Psychology, the threedimension
structure (evaluation–pleasantness, power–control and activation–arousal dimension)
that was found, is very important and valuable when studying the meaning of emotion and can
consequently be used as a reference for other emotion research constructs. If it is accurate as
stated in literature, there are three and not only two emotion dimension structures, and
researchers are missing out on a bigger picture for not drawing on the experience of emotion
sufficiently.
Research Article 3
A survey design and an availability sample (N=120) in the Eastern Cape, Free State and Gauteng
provinces in South Africa was utilised for this study. The Meaning Grid was translated and backtranslated
and adapted for use in Afrikaans.
The Cronbach's alpha coefficients were obtained for the emotion terms. According to the results
of the Meaning Grid instrument, the following emotion terms were the highest: disgust (afkeur)
0,95; pleasure (plesier) 0,94; stress (stres) 0,92; happiness (blydskap) 0,91; joy (vreugde) 0,91;
fear (bang) 0,91; anger (angstig) 0,91 and hate (haat) 0,90. The emotion terms that scored the
lowest with the Meaning Grid instrument were compassion (medelye) 0,79; pride (trots) 0,79
and contempt (minagting) 0,74. Out of the 24 emotion terms of the Meaning Grid instrument, 8
terms were above 0,90 and 13 were between 0,80 and 0,89. Only 3 terms were between 0,74 and
0,79 [compassion (medelye), pride (trots) and contempt (minagting)]. A three–factor solution was found which represented four emotion dimensions (evaluation,
arousal/unpredictability and power) that were universal to the emotion structures found in
European samples. Factor scores of the 24 Meaning Grid emotions indicate a three–factor
solution that explained 62,2 % of the total variance. The first factor was labelled evaluation and
explained 43,0% of the variance, the second factor was labelled arousal/unpredictability as it
was a combination of arousal and unpredictability and explained 11,0% of the variance, and the
third factor was labelled power and explained 8,2% of the variance.
This study followed an approach that investigated the meaning structure of emotion in the
sample group in the context of 144 emotion features using a componential emotion theory
approach. Different researchers argued that emotion meaning has more than only two
dimensions. A three–dimensional emotion structure was found that was universal to the emotion
structures of three language groups in a European sample. Therefore, the meaning of emotions
for this sample group is far more complex than the two–dimensional emotion models that are
found in literature. According to the componential emotion theory approach, the 144 emotion
features are very important building blocks for Industrial Psychology when studying the meaning
of emotion.
Research Article 4
A survey design was used in this research study. The Episode Meaning Grid was administered
and participants reported on the two intense emotion experiences at work (in total 358 episodes).
Employees rated their emotion experiences on features based on the componential emotion
theory and also described the emotion events in their own words. The participants in the emotion
episodes (N=179) study consisted of native white Afrikaans–speaking working adults. The
sample consisted of participants from the white ethnicity group speaking Afrikaans within the
Eastern Cape, Free State and North–West provinces and use was made of an availability sample.
The results indicated a three–dimensional structure (evaluation–pleasantness, activation–arousal
and power–control dimension) was identified within a white Afrikaans–speaking working adult
language group. The first dimension was an evaluation–pleasantness dimension. The second dimension was an activation–arousal dimension. The third dimension was a power–control
dimension.
Regarding the reporting of emotion episodes one hundred and ninety seven respondents reported
84 satisfying emotion episodes and 267 less satisfying emotion episodes that took place at work.
Nine different categories of episodes for satisfying emotions experienced were mentioned. It
consists of behaviour of work colleagues, acts of boss/superior/management, goal achievement,
receiving recognition, workplace policy, task recognition, personal incidents, emotion
involvement and subordinate behaviour. The three highest categories of satisfying emotions
episodes were “Goal Achievement” (N=31), “Receiving Recognition” (N=20) and “Personal
Incidents” (N=10). Goal achievement describes situations where job related targets or goals were
met, and receiving recognition refers to positive feedback from managers, supervisors and work
colleagues on meeting targets.
Nineteen different categories of episodes for less satisfying emotion episodes were mentioned. It
consists of behaviour of work colleagues, acts of boss/superior/management, lack of goal
achievement, lack of receiving recognition, workplace policy, task requirement, personal
incidents, emotional involvement, subordinate behaviour, workload, work mistakes, customer
behaviour, external environment, lack of control, physical well–being, involvement in
disciplinary action, workplace strikes, wellness of colleagues and unfairness in the workplace. In
the categories of less satisfying emotions episodes, the three highest were “Behaviour of Work
Colleagues” (N=58), “Acts of Boss/Superior/Management” (N=47) and “Task Requirement”
(N=33). The first two categories are appraised less satisfying behaviour towards oneself or others
by work colleagues, managers, supervisors and customers. In terms of the categories of
satisfying and less satisfying emotions episodes, less satisfying emotion episodes outnumbered
satisfying emotions episodes by three to one.
By making use of a multi–componential emotion model, the results confirm that the four factors
of pleasantness, power, arousal, and unpredictability, in that order of importance, are essential to
satisfactorily determine the emotion experience and meaning of emotion terms. A threedimensional
emotion structure (evaluation, arousal and power) was found after determining the
meaning of emotion in the natural contexts in which they occur. The answer to the question if
these two–dimensional emotion models, as stated in literature, are sufficient to cover the broad
and often complex dynamics of emotion, is certainly no.
Recommendations for the organisation and future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:NWUBOLOKA1/oai:dspace.nwu.ac.za:10394/7590 |
| Date | January 2011 |
| Creators | Van der Merwe, Aletta Sophia |
| Publisher | North-West University |
| Source Sets | North-West University |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | Thesis |
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