Review of the literature, leader member exchange theory (LMX) has an impact on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB); however, previous studies maily focus on single level exchange relationship, from a practical point of view, this issue should be involved in multi-level exchange relationship, and leader¡¦s group prototypicality may become an important factor to influence organizational citizenship behavior. This research tries to discuss different levels LMX in organization, one is the relationship between direct leader and subordinate(LMX1), the other is between department leader and subordinate(LMX2). Since LMX not only has an effect on subordinates¡¦ OCB but also role performance which regarding OCB as an extra role behaviors, this study try to explore the relationship between LMX and subordinate¡¦s role performance, and used multi-level leader-leader exchange theory (LLX) and leader¡¦s group prototypicality as moderating effects. In order to avoid common method variance, this study collected questionnaires from different sources which including 70 supervisors and 210 subordinates. Due to the multi-level research framework, this research used SPSS and HLM as analysis tool. The results show that LMX1 has a positive effect on role performance as predicted. Moderating effects in the research are partially supported. The better exchange quality of LLX, the more significant of subordinates¡¦ organization citizenship behavior toward individuals (OCBI) will appear; moreover, the higher direct leader¡¦s group prototypicality is, the more significant subordinate¡¦s in role behavior will be. However, LMX2 has positive effect on role performance is not supported. This study accordingly has some managerial implications and recommendations for future research reference.

This thesis examines the impact of leaders’ personal performance and prototypicality on their ability to champion a social identity by advancing shared group interests. With this in mind, general theories of leadership and followership are reviewed as well as theories of leaders’ performance more specifically. As a framework for understanding leaders’ role in managing shared identity, we then discuss the social identity approach and its application to the field of leadership. In three studies (Chapter 3), we examine the interactive effect of leaders’ prototypicality and personal performance on followers’ evaluations of their leadership. Studies 1 and 2 show that the impact of leaders’ performance on followers’ favourable reactions to their leadership (in terms of group advancement, trust in the leader, and leader endorsement) is more pronounced when leaders are prototypical, rather than non-prototypical, of followers’ ingroup. Study 3 provides evidence from the field that this interaction between performance and prototypicality also impacts on followers’ perceptions of leader charisma. Moreover, there is evidence that this impact can be explained, in part, by the degree to which followers perceive leaders to advance shared group interests. Results suggest that highly prototypical leaders who display elevated, rather than average, performance are responded to more favourably because their performance is perceived to advance a shared social identity. Although our first three studies demonstrate that we can disentangle leaders’ performance and prototypicality in order to examine their interactive effects, this does not mean that these two things are independent. Studies 4-6 (Chapter 4) provide evidence from the field and the laboratory that followers associate the performance of leaders with their prototypicality. A field study indicates that followers’ perceptions of leader performance and prototypicality are indeed positively related (Study 4). Moreover, experiments suggest that while followers infer a leader’s prototypicality from his or her performance (Study 5), their evaluation of a leader’s performance is also influenced by his or her prototypicality (Study 6). Studies 5 and 6 also indicate that leaders’ performance and prototypicality determine their capacity to engage in identity entrepreneurship by changing ingroup norms and ideals. In this way, results suggest that leader performance and prototypicality are not only bidirectionally related but are also important factors that contribute to a leader’s capacity to craft present and future understandings of a social identity. In the third empirical chapter (Chapter 5), we examine the impact of evaluators’ status as either internal or external to a group on assessments of leader prototypicality and performance. Study 7 shows that compared to external evaluators, internal evaluators are more likely to perceive highly prototypical low-performing leaders to advance the group more than low-prototypical high-performing leaders. Study 8 also demonstrates that internal (but not external) evaluators perceive highly prototypical leaders as more likely to advance the group compared to their moderately prototypical counterparts. Results suggest that these differential evaluations are primarily attributable to internal evaluators’ increased responsiveness to prototypicality such that they are less willing than external evaluators to forgo leaders’ prototypicality in exchange for their outstanding performance. Taken together, the thesis supports a complex model in which leader effectiveness is determined by followers’ appreciation of leaders’ prototypicality and performance against the backdrop of their perceived capacity to realize shared goals and ambitions. The present thesis extends theories that emphasize the importance of leaders’ exceptional performance. It shows that leaders’ extraordinary capability is of limited value if they fail to demonstrate their alignment with followers. In successful leadership these two go together such that leaders must be seen to promote ‘our’ ambitions and to be able to realize them. Theoretical implications for leadership theories and practical implications for organizational practices are discussed.

I assessed the influence prototypicality has on judgements individuals make about gay men. It has been demonstrated that individuals make inferences regarding a person’s traits and group membership based upon a person’s perceived prototypicality (Ambady, Hallahan, & Conner, 1999; Stephan & Stephan, 1989; Wilkins, Kaiser, and Rieck, 2010). I hypothesized that highly prototypical gay men would be perceived to be more identified with the gay community, possess more negative stereotypes of gay men, engage in more activities associated with the gay community, receive less positive feelings from others, and experience more discrimination. Additionally, perceived group identification and negative stereotyping were expected to mediate serially the relationship between prototypicality, perceived engagement in gay activities, positive attitudes from others, and discrimination from others. Participants (N=360) viewed an image of a gay man either low or high in prototypicality. Participants evaluated the gay man’s perceived group identification, perceived stereotypical traits, engagement in activities associated with the gay community, as well as their own feelings and behavioral intentions toward the gay men. Highly prototypical gay men were perceived to (1) identify more with the gay community, (2) possess more negative stereotypes associated with gay men, and (3) engage in more immoral activities associated with the gay community, than low prototypical gay men. Moreover, perceived group identification and negative stereotyping serially mediated the relationship between prototypicality, and perceived engagement in gay activities, attitudes towards the target, and discrimination from others.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) has provided the Industrial/Organizational Psychologists and Organizational Behaviorists with a theoretical framework for understanding how leaders lead followers. This theory is based on the interpersonal relationship between leader and follower. The theory proposes that the relationship between leaders and followers develops from a dyadic exchange process. However, research has recognized the need to consider the influence of social context on the relationship between LMX and outcomes. The Social Identity Model of Leadership (SIMOL) has proposed a view of leadership from the perspective of the relationship between the leader and a group of followers. This theory is based primarily on group memberships and how the leader fits the group prototype, affecting the leader's ability to lead and how the leader leads. This paper discusses both theories and shows how dyadic and group relationships work in concert to explain how leaders lead followers. The paper hypothesizes that SIMOL, through leader prototypicality, moderates the relationship between LMX and follower attitudes. Together, they provide a more complete framework for understanding leadership based on the simultaneously occurring relationships encountered by a leader.

To date, procedural justice research has paid little attention to how people react to procedural discrimination (favoring self vs. favoring other), that is, how people react when they and the others are treated with different procedures. To fill this gap in the procedural justice literature and advance our understanding in this area, the current thesis presents an analysis of how reactions to procedural discrimination are qualified by the group membership and intragroup position (ingroup prototypicality and intragroup status) of the parties involved in intragroup and intergroup contexts. Studies 1 and 2 revealed that in an intergroup context, as group members perceive ingroup bias as legitimate, they react more positively when they are favored over an outgroup member than when an outgroup member is favored over them. In particular, because group members perceive the ingroup authority to be more related to them, their reactions to favoring self as opposed to favoring other procedures are stronger when the authority is an ingroup member than when the authority is an outgroup member. Studies 3 to 5 showed that in an intragroup context, peripheral members, who are highly concerned about group acceptance, perceive a high level of illegitimacy and react particularly negatively when a prototypical member is favored over them. On the other hand, prototypical members paired with a prototypical or peripheral member, and peripheral members paired with another peripheral member react similarly to procedural discrimination whether it favors them or the other group member. Studies 6 and 7 also focused on the intragroup context. These studies revealed that when high status group members are favored over a low status member, if they perceive the status difference as legitimate, they perceive relatively high levels of procedural legitimacy and procedural fairness, and report a relatively low level of negative affect. On the other hand, when low status group members are discriminated against in favor of a high status counterpart, they report a relatively high level of negative affect even if they perceive the status difference as legitimate and think that the favoring other procedure is relatively legitimate and fair. Taken together, the current program of studies reveals that depending on group membership or intragroup position, group members may react differently to favoring self as opposed to favoring other procedures. Furthermore, affective reactions to the procedures may not be consistent with cognitive judgments of the procedures. The research also reveals that the influence of group membership and intragroup position on reactions to procedural discrimination can be conceptualized in terms of sensitivity to procedural information (Proposition 1) and perceived procedural legitimacy (Proposition 2), suggesting that the group-value model (Lind & Tyler, 1988) and the social identity perspective (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner, 1985; Turner et al., 1987; for a review, see Hogg, 2005, 2006) can help explain reactions to procedural discrimination. In conclusion, the current thesis makes significant contribution to the procedural justice literature.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / RESUMO Esta tese, predominantemente teÃrica, postula que os sistemas lingÃÃsticos naturais tendem a uma regularizaÃÃo demonstrÃvel por meio de formas, categorias, classes e funÃÃes prototÃpicas. As formas representativas de prototipicidade de propriedades categoriais ou de classes de palavra sÃo construÃdas por intermÃdio de eleiÃÃes dos usuÃrios de determinadas comunidades lingÃÃsticas. Essas opÃÃes assentam-se ou sedimentam-se com base na freqÃÃncia de uso. Quanto mais freqÃentemente uma forma à usada, maior a possibilidade de gramaticalizaÃÃo acentuada, com perda de massa fÃnica e morfologizaÃÃo, com repercussÃes atinentes ao seu estatuto categorial em relaÃÃo aos paradigmas da lÃngua. A codificaÃÃo gramatical de toda e qualquer propriedade categorial (nÃmero, pessoa, gÃnero, tempo, modo, voz, etc), assim como das classes de palavras Ã, em Ãltima anÃlise, construÃda com base no uso. A propositura fundamental desta tese à a reivindicaÃÃo de uma nova categoria, a proformalidade, com vistas a reconfigurar as classes, de tal sorte que a reordenaÃÃo contemple quatro macroclasses de palavras, a saber: nomes (substantivos, adjetivos, numerais); verbos; advÃrbios; e elementos relacionais (juntores preposicionais e conjuncionais). Essa categoria afeta igualmente as subclasses das referidas macroclasses e os morfemas intralexicais codificadores das aludidas propriedades categoriais, com a admissÃo de uma movimentaÃÃo interclasse e intraclasse decorrente da incidÃncia de processos de gramaticalizaÃÃo. O cabedal teÃrico à constituÃdo do confronto de modelos epistemolÃgicos, com a opÃÃo por um amÃlgama de teses aristotÃlicas e prototipistas; da exposiÃÃo da natureza dos processos de gramaticalizaÃÃo, com a admissÃo de que lÃxico e gramÃtica sÃo seÃÃes diferenciadas pelo estatuto de gramaticalidade; da admissÃo da hipÃtese evolucionÃria para explicar os movimentos de gramaticalizaÃÃo de codificaÃÃes de maior transparÃncia (ou concretude referencial) e funÃÃes exofÃricas para funÃÃes estritamente intralingÃÃsticas. Ao longo dessa exposiÃÃo teÃrica, que confronta teses tradicionais sem desconsiderar seu proveito relativo, anÃlises ilustrativas de amostras de uso concreto da lÃngua portuguesa (coligidas do www.corpusdoportugues.org e de outros sÃtios da internet) sÃo empreendidas com vistas a fundamentar minimamente a razÃo de ser da tese fundamental. Destarte, esta proposta de classificaÃÃo gradua as macroclasses de palavras em dois macrogrupos, denominados de pleriformas e proformas, os quais sÃo discrepados com base na manifestaÃÃo mais ou menos acentuada da categoria proformalidade. Essa categoria responde pela fusÃo de conceitos pragmÃticos, cognitivos e lingÃÃsticos para explicar a prototipicidade de formas de classes, subclasses e morfemas intralexicais como itens exemplares de seus respectivos paradigmas. Sua exemplaridade provÃm da conservaÃÃo de traÃos semÃnticos mÃnimos no interior de cada classe, subclasse ou paradigma mÃrfico intralexical, de tal modo que uma proforma pode desempenhar funÃÃo supletiva com freqÃÃncia majoritÃria, conquanto nÃo absoluta, ou representar prototipicamente todos os membros de sua classe, subclasse ou paradigma mÃrfico intralexical. A compreensÃo de que os processos de variaÃÃo e mudanÃa lingÃÃstica, em especial a gramaticalizaÃÃo, responde pela fluidez categorial nos levou a compor escalas de continua dentro das diversas macroclasses proformais, com vistas a exemplificar o trÃnsito interclasse e intraclasse com diferentes graus de gramaticalidade (observando-se para a avaliaÃÃo do estatuto de gramaticalidade, fatores de ordem mÃrfica, sintÃtica e semÃntica). Por outras palavras, a elaboraÃÃo das escalas tem por interesse ilustrar que o estatuto de gramaticalidade de pleri- e proformas disponÃveis para codificaÃÃo lingÃÃstica de toda ordem pode variar entre as classes, entre as subclasses de uma mesma classe, entre os morfemas intralexicais e entre funÃÃes sintÃtico-semÃnticas. Desse modo, no interior de cada macroclasse pleri- e proformal, de suas subclasses e de suas propriedades categoriais constitutivas, as formas apresentam estatutos de gramaticalidade variados, a depender de sua maior, menor ou mÃltipla filiaÃÃo, respectivamente, a macroclasses, a subclasses, ou a maior ou menor expressÃo morfologizada de uma propriedade categorial. As disputas, portanto, entre lÃxico e gramÃtica, condicionadas por fatores cognitivos e pragmÃticos, ocorrem entre as classes, as subclasses e os morfemas intralexicais codificadores de propriedades categoriais. Por fim, a tese presta um tributo à tradiÃÃo por ter, de um modo ou de outro, chamado atenÃÃo, ou intuÃdo, para a propensÃo de os sistemas lingÃÃsticos apresentarem, de modo periodicamente refundido, uma contraparte mais genÃrica de cada macroclasse, subclasse e morfemas intralexicais. Contudo, esse entendimento se refletiu ou se resumiu estrita e/ou principalmente à classe pronominal. Justifica-se, assim, a consideraÃÃo dos pronomes como os protÃtipos das proformas, ou seja, como seus exemplares tÃpicos ou melhores representantes. / This thesis, predominantly theoretical, postulates that the natural linguistic systems tend to regularization demonstrable through prototypical forms, categories, classes and functions. The representative forms of categorical properties prototypicality are built by means of user-determined choices of language communities. These choices settle down or sediment on the basis of usage frequency. The more often a given form is used, the greater the possibility of stressed grammaticalization, with the loss of phonic mass and the morphologicalization with germane repercussions to the categorical status in relationship to the language paradigms. The grammatical codification of each and every categorical property (number, person, size, gender, tense, mood, voice, and so on), as well as the word classes, is, in the last analysis, construed on the basis of the use. The fundamental proposition of this thesis is the claim for a new category, proformality, in pursuit of reconfiguring the word classes, in such a way the reordination considers four word macroclasses, to wit: nouns (substantives, adjectives, numerals); verbs; adverbs; and relational elements (prepositional and conjunctional connectors). This category affects not only the subclasses of the above mentioned macroclasses but also the intralexical morphemes codifying the referred categorical properties, with the admission of a interclass and intraclass moving as a consequence of the incidence of grammaticalization processes. The theoretical support is constituted by the confrontation of epistemological models, with the final option for an amalgam of Aristothelic and prototypical theses; by the exposition on the grammaticalization processes nature, with the assumption that lexicon and grammar are differentiated sections by virtue of the grammaticality status; by the admission of the evolutionary hypothesis to explain the movements of grammaticalization of codifications of bigger transparence (referential concreteness) and exophoric codifications to strictly intralinguistic functions. Along of that theoretical exposition, which confronts traditional theses without disregarding its relative profit, illustrative analyses of samples taken from the concrete use of Portuguese language (collected from www.corpusdoportugues.org and other internet sites) are undertaken aiming to found minimally the fundamental reason of this thesis. Thus, this proposition of classification gradates the word macroclasses in two macrogroups, named pleriforms and proforms, which are distinguished on the basis of the manifestation more or less stressed of proformality category. This category accounts for the fusion of pragmatic, cognitive and linguistic concepts in order to explain the prototypicality of forms related to classes, subclasses and intralexical morphemes as model items of their correspondent paradigms.Its exemplarity comes from the conservation of minimal semantic features at the bottom of each class, subclass and intralexical morphemic paradigm, in such a way a proform can perform a suppletive function with large-scale frequency, even though not absolute, or represent prototypically all of the members of its class, subclass or intralexical morphemic paradigm. The comprehension that the processes of variation and linguistic change, especially grammaticalization, accounts for categorical fluidity led us to produce scales of continua inside several proformal macroclasses, aiming to exemplify the movement inside the same class and among the different classes with different degrees of grammaticality ( to do that, one observes factors of morphological, syntactic and semantic factors). In other terms, the elaboration of scales aims to illustrate that the status of grammaticality of available pleri- and proforms to any kind of linguistic codification can vary among the classes, the subclasses of the same class, the intralexical morphemes and syntactic-semantic functions. So inside each pleri- and proformal macroclass, inside its subclasses and inside its constitutive categorical properties, forms present different levels of grammaticality on the basis of its greater, lesser or multiple membership, respectively, on macroclasses, subclasses, greater or lesser morphological expression of a categorical property. Therefore, the disputes among lexicon and grammar, conditioned by cognitive and pragmatic factors, occur inside the classes, the subclasses and the intralexical morphemes codifying categorical properties. Finally this thesis pays tribute to the tradition since it has paid attention, one way or the other, to the propension of linguistic systems to put forward, in a periodically remolded way, the more generic counterpart of each macroclass, subclass and intralexical morphemes. However, this understanding has been strictly or mainly reflected and subsumed to the so called pronominal class. That is the reason why it is justifiable the consideration that pronouns are the prototypes of proforms, that is, they are their typical exemplars or their better representatives.

The aim of the present study was to investigate both antecedents and follower outcomes of leader group prototypicality as well as followers&rsquo / social identification with the group in two theoretical models guided by the propositions of social identity theory (SIT / Hogg, 1996) of leadership. The first model suggested that specific leadership styles (i.e., paternalistic, relationship-oriented, and task-oriented) predicted perceived leader group prototypicality and followers&rsquo / social identification depending on certain follower characteristics (i.e., cultural orientations and motivational tendencies). In the second model, proximal and distal follower outcomes of leader group prototypicality and the moderating role of follower social identification in these relationships were investigated. The findings revealed that followers&rsquo / individualism orientation moderated the link between task-oriented leadership and leader group prototypicality whereas both collectivism and individualism moderated the relationship between paternalistic v leadership and leader group prototypicality. The effects of task-oriented leadership on followers&rsquo / identification with the work group was enhanced by followers&rsquo / need for affiliation. Leader group prototypicality was positively associated with job satisfaction through its positive effects on personal attraction towards the leader, and followers&rsquo / leadership effectiveness perceptions and trust as well as its negative effects on social attraction and responsibility attributions for negative leader behaviors. The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications along with suggestions for future research.

People use facial appearance to infer the social attributes of others. A primary indicator of facial attractiveness is prototypicality (the proximity of an object to its categorical central tendency); faces and objects closer to the central tendency are judged as more attractive. Perceptual fluency theory suggests that cognitive processing speed directly generates positive affect. This dissertation examined the relationships among attractiveness, prototypicality, and affective response in faces and non-face objects across adult and 8-year-old participants using a reaction time (RT) paradigm. RT predicted positive affect and disgust responses to facial stimuli. Of particular note are the series of complementary findings suggesting that reaction to unattractive faces may be both quantitatively (i.e., longer RT latencies) and qualitatively (i.e., judged to be less typical) different from high and medium attractive faces. These findings may help explain how appearance-based stereotypes are formed and maintained. / text

CAMPELO, Kilpatrick Muller Bernardo. O estatuto conceitual e funcional das proformas. Pronome: protótipo das proformas. 2007. 405f. – Tese (Doutorado) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Departamento de Letras Vernáculas, Programa de Pós-graduação em Linguística, Fortaleza (CE), 2007. / Submitted by Márcia Araújo (marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-08-25T12:50:04Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2007_tese_kmbcampelo.pdf: 2839110 bytes, checksum: ef197e8135d82e5209ecfd59b54abaf3 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Márcia Araújo(marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-08-25T14:04:43Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2007_tese_kmbcampelo.pdf: 2839110 bytes, checksum: ef197e8135d82e5209ecfd59b54abaf3 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-25T14:04:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2007_tese_kmbcampelo.pdf: 2839110 bytes, checksum: ef197e8135d82e5209ecfd59b54abaf3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / This thesis, predominantly theoretical, postulates that the natural linguistic systems tend to regularization demonstrable through prototypical forms, categories, classes and functions. The representative forms of categorical properties prototypicality are built by means of user-determined choices of language communities. These choices settle down or sediment on the basis of usage frequency. The more often a given form is used, the greater the possibility of stressed grammaticalization, with the loss of phonic mass and the morphologicalization with germane repercussions to the categorical status in relationship to the language paradigms. The grammatical codification of each and every categorical property (number, person, size, gender, tense, mood, voice, and so on), as well as the word classes, is, in the last analysis, construed on the basis of the use. The fundamental proposition of this thesis is the claim for a new category, proformality, in pursuit of reconfiguring the word classes, in such a way the reordination considers four word macroclasses, to wit: nouns (substantives, adjectives, numerals); verbs; adverbs; and relational elements (prepositional and conjunctional connectors). This category affects not only the subclasses of the above mentioned macroclasses but also the intralexical morphemes codifying the referred categorical properties, with the admission of a interclass and intraclass moving as a consequence of the incidence of grammaticalization processes. The theoretical support is constituted by the confrontation of epistemological models, with the final option for an amalgam of Aristothelic and prototypical theses; by the exposition on the grammaticalization processes nature, with the assumption that lexicon and grammar are differentiated sections by virtue of the grammaticality status; by the admission of the evolutionary hypothesis to explain the movements of grammaticalization of codifications of bigger transparence (referential concreteness) and exophoric codifications to strictly intralinguistic functions. Along of that theoretical exposition, which confronts traditional theses without disregarding its relative profit, illustrative analyses of samples taken from the concrete use of Portuguese language (collected from www.corpusdoportugues.org and other internet sites) are undertaken aiming to found minimally the fundamental reason of this thesis. Thus, this proposition of classification gradates the word macroclasses in two macrogroups, named pleriforms and proforms, which are distinguished on the basis of the manifestation more or less stressed of proformality category. This category accounts for the fusion of pragmatic, cognitive and linguistic concepts in order to explain the prototypicality of forms related to classes, subclasses and intralexical morphemes as model items of their correspondent paradigms.Its exemplarity comes from the conservation of minimal semantic features at the bottom of each class, subclass and intralexical morphemic paradigm, in such a way a proform can perform a suppletive function with large-scale frequency, even though not absolute, or represent prototypically all of the members of its class, subclass or intralexical morphemic paradigm. The comprehension that the processes of variation and linguistic change, especially grammaticalization, accounts for categorical fluidity led us to produce scales of continua inside several proformal macroclasses, aiming to exemplify the movement inside the same class and among the different classes with different degrees of grammaticality ( to do that, one observes factors of morphological, syntactic and semantic factors). In other terms, the elaboration of scales aims to illustrate that the status of grammaticality of available pleri- and proforms to any kind of linguistic codification can vary among the classes, the subclasses of the same class, the intralexical morphemes and syntactic-semantic functions. So inside each pleri- and proformal macroclass, inside its subclasses and inside its constitutive categorical properties, forms present different levels of grammaticality on the basis of its greater, lesser or multiple membership, respectively, on macroclasses, subclasses, greater or lesser morphological expression of a categorical property. Therefore, the disputes among lexicon and grammar, conditioned by cognitive and pragmatic factors, occur inside the classes, the subclasses and the intralexical morphemes codifying categorical properties. Finally this thesis pays tribute to the tradition since it has paid attention, one way or the other, to the propension of linguistic systems to put forward, in a periodically remolded way, the more generic counterpart of each macroclass, subclass and intralexical morphemes. However, this understanding has been strictly or mainly reflected and subsumed to the so called pronominal class. That is the reason why it is justifiable the consideration that pronouns are the prototypes of proforms, that is, they are their typical exemplars or their better representatives. / Esta tese, predominantemente teórica, postula que os sistemas lingüísticos naturais tendem a uma regularização demonstrável por meio de formas, categorias, classes e funções prototípicas. As formas representativas de prototipicidade de propriedades categoriais ou de classes de palavra são construídas por intermédio de eleições dos usuários de determinadas comunidades lingüísticas. Essas opções assentam-se ou sedimentam-se com base na freqüência de uso. Quanto mais freqüentemente uma forma é usada, maior a possibilidade de gramaticalização acentuada, com perda de massa fônica e morfologização, com repercussões atinentes ao seu estatuto categorial em relação aos paradigmas da língua. A codificação gramatical de toda e qualquer propriedade categorial (número, pessoa, gênero, tempo, modo, voz, etc), assim como das classes de palavras é, em última análise, construída com base no uso. A propositura fundamental desta tese é a reivindicação de uma nova categoria, a proformalidade, com vistas a reconfigurar as classes, de tal sorte que a reordenação contemple quatro macroclasses de palavras, a saber: nomes (substantivos, adjetivos, numerais); verbos; advérbios; e elementos relacionais (juntores preposicionais e conjuncionais). Essa categoria afeta igualmente as subclasses das referidas macroclasses e os morfemas intralexicais codificadores das aludidas propriedades categoriais, com a admissão de uma movimentação interclasse e intraclasse decorrente da incidência de processos de gramaticalização. O cabedal teórico é constituído do confronto de modelos epistemológicos, com a opção por um amálgama de teses aristotélicas e prototipistas; da exposição da natureza dos processos de gramaticalização, com a admissão de que léxico e gramática são seções diferenciadas pelo estatuto de gramaticalidade; da admissão da hipótese evolucionária para explicar os movimentos de gramaticalização de codificações de maior transparência (ou concretude referencial) e funções exofóricas para funções estritamente intralingüísticas. Ao longo dessa exposição teórica, que confronta teses tradicionais sem desconsiderar seu proveito relativo, análises ilustrativas de amostras de uso concreto da língua portuguesa (coligidas do www.corpusdoportugues.org e de outros sítios da internet) são empreendidas com vistas a fundamentar minimamente a razão de ser da tese fundamental. Destarte, esta proposta de classificação gradua as macroclasses de palavras em dois macrogrupos, denominados de pleriformas e proformas, os quais são discrepados com base na manifestação mais ou menos acentuada da categoria proformalidade. Essa categoria responde pela fusão de conceitos pragmáticos, cognitivos e lingüísticos para explicar a prototipicidade de formas de classes, subclasses e morfemas intralexicais como itens exemplares de seus respectivos paradigmas. Sua exemplaridade provém da conservação de traços semânticos mínimos no interior de cada classe, subclasse ou paradigma mórfico intralexical, de tal modo que uma proforma pode desempenhar função supletiva com freqüência majoritária, conquanto não absoluta, ou representar prototipicamente todos os membros de sua classe, subclasse ou paradigma mórfico intralexical. A compreensão de que os processos de variação e mudança lingüística, em especial a gramaticalização, responde pela fluidez categorial nos levou a compor escalas de continua dentro das diversas macroclasses proformais, com vistas a exemplificar o trânsito interclasse e intraclasse com diferentes graus de gramaticalidade (observando-se para a avaliação do estatuto de gramaticalidade, fatores de ordem mórfica, sintática e semântica). Por outras palavras, a elaboração das escalas tem por interesse ilustrar que o estatuto de gramaticalidade de pleri- e proformas disponíveis para codificação lingüística de toda ordem pode variar entre as classes, entre as subclasses de uma mesma classe, entre os morfemas intralexicais e entre funções sintático-semânticas. Desse modo, no interior de cada macroclasse pleri- e proformal, de suas subclasses e de suas propriedades categoriais constitutivas, as formas apresentam estatutos de gramaticalidade variados, a depender de sua maior, menor ou múltipla filiação, respectivamente, a macroclasses, a subclasses, ou a maior ou menor expressão morfologizada de uma propriedade categorial. As disputas, portanto, entre léxico e gramática, condicionadas por fatores cognitivos e pragmáticos, ocorrem entre as classes, as subclasses e os morfemas intralexicais codificadores de propriedades categoriais. Por fim, a tese presta um tributo à tradição por ter, de um modo ou de outro, chamado atenção, ou intuído, para a propensão de os sistemas lingüísticos apresentarem, de modo periodicamente refundido, uma contraparte mais genérica de cada macroclasse, subclasse e morfemas intralexicais. Contudo, esse entendimento se refletiu ou se resumiu estrita e/ou principalmente à classe pronominal. Justifica-se, assim, a consideração dos pronomes como os protótipos das proformas, ou seja, como seus exemplares típicos ou melhores representantes.

Cette étude porte sur l’inscription physique et symbolique des mains dans le système grammatical et conceptuel de l’anglais. Une attention particulière a été portée au rôle des mains dans les conceptualisations métonymique et métaphorique de notions plus ou moins abstraites. De façon plus générale se pose la question du rôle des mains (physique et symbolique) dans l’organisation interne de la langue et l’expression de la pensée. Pour répondre à cette question, une étude quantitative du corpus écrit British National Corpus (BNC) a été faite, dans lequel des morphèmes polysémiques évoquant les parties et mouvements du corps ont été classés, en confrontant leurs utilisations littérales, métonymiques et métaphoriques. Notre recherche a permis d’explorer l’hypothèse d’un “corps symbolique de la cognition” (Lapaire 2008) opérant sur des matières et des espaces abstraits, avec des mains imaginaires. Elle a aussi permis d’explorer la manière dont la conceptualisation métonymique et métaphorique de ces morphèmes “fonctionne”, en “décomposant” le sens conceptuel de ces derniers. Les effets grammaticaux qu’entrainent une telle utilisation conceptuelle ont également été analysés. La grammaticalisation (Traugott 2000) permet de montrer comment les parties du corps et leurs activités prototypiques sont intégrées aux systèmes grammaticaux. Ces derniers ne sont pas autonomes, la grammaire inscrivant dans ces formes l’expérience physico-culturelle de l’environnement. / This study treats the presence of physical and symbolical hands in the grammar and the conceptual structures of English. The role of the hands in the metonymical and metaphorical conceptualization of more or less abstract notions will be highlighted. More generally, this raises the question as to what the role of the hands (physical and symbolical) is in the structures of the English language and in thought. To answer this question, a quantitative study of mostly the written British National Corpus (BNC), has been made, in which polysemous terms relating to body parts and body part movements, have been searched and classified according to their literal, metonymic, and metaphorical uses. This research study will allow for the exploration of the hypothesis of the Idealized Body of Cognition (Lapaire 2008), which works on abstract materials and spaces with imaginary hands. It will also allow for an exploration of the way conceptualization of the body works by “decomposing” its meaning. The consequences such conceptualized uses of the body may have in grammar will also be explored. Grammaticalization (Traugott 2000) will show how body parts and their prototypical activities may be integrated in grammatical systems. This latter are not autonomous, inscribing in their forms the physico-cultural experience of the environment. / Questo studio tratta della presenza della mani, fisiche e/o simboliche, nella grammatica e nelle strutture concettuali della lingua Inglese, in particolare, saranno evidenziate le loro concettualizzazioni metonimiche e metaforiche, più o meno astratte. In generale, si tratta di analizzare il ruolo delle mani (fisiche e simboliche) nelle strutture della lingua Inglese e nel pensiero. A tal fine, lo studio si è basato su una ricerca quantitativa della British National Corpus (BNC) che ha classificato i termini polisemici riguardanti parti del corpo ed i relativi movimenti, a secondo del loro uso letterale, metonimico o metaforico. Questo studio si pone come obiettivo quello di esplorare l’ipotesi di un corpo simbolico della cognizione (Idealized Body of Cognition, Lapaire 2008) che agisce su materiali e spazi astratti con “mani immaginarie”. Non solo, ma anche di esplorare la maniera, in cui la concettualizzazione del corpo “funziona”, “scomponendo” questo senso concettuale, fino ad indagare sulle conseguenze che tali usi concettuali del corpo hanno nella grammatica. La grammaticalizzazione (Traugott 2000) mostrerà come parti del corpo e le loro prototipiche attività possono essere integrati nei sistemi grammaticali, quest’ultimi non sono autonomi e inscrivono nelle loro forme l’esperienza fisico-culturale dell’ambiente.