This dissertation records and analyses the Tibetan cultural discourses and social practices relating to the Himalayan peak called Dag-pa Shel-ri, or 'Pure Crystal Mountain'. The mountain and its environs constitute the borderland district of Tsa-ri in South-eastern Tibet. The area has long been of ritual importance to Tibetan-speaking peoples as a site of local mountain deity worship. Tantric practice and popular pilgrimages. This work gives the first comprehensive Western account of pre-1959 Tibetan life at Tsa-ri using an ethnohistorical method which makes extensive use of Tibetan oral and written sources. Chapter one discusses theoretical and methodological issues concerning this research in particular, and the study of Tibetan pilgrimage rituals in general. It concludes that closer attention needs to be paid to emic categories of place, person and substance in research on certain types of Tibetan practices and beliefs. Chapter two surveys the main Tibetan representational systems which contextualize Pure Crystal Mountain cosmologically and geographically, and which are used in the definition and ordering of space and place at the site. Chapter three contains translations of oral and written 'narrative map' texts. These are discussed in terms of how Tibetans construct their historical consciousness of the area and interpret and navigate its landscape. Chapter four introduces the mountain as a historically important site for Tibetan Tantra and gives an account of Tantric Buddhist ritual life there in the 1950s. Chapter five describes three popular annual pilgrimages which took place on the upper slopes of the mountain during the 1950s. Chapter six gives a detailed account of the large, twelve-yearly Tsa-ri rong-skor procession and the associated klo-rdzong ceremony based on Tibetan reports of the last two stagings of these events in 1944 and 1956. Chapter seven analyses the historical origins and cultural and social significance of the Tsa-ri rong-skor procession and klo-rdzong ceremony in pre-1959 Tibet. Chapter eight describes the local ecology and economy of the inhabitants of Tsa-ri district in the 1950s. It shows how representations of person and place at Tsa-ri were linked to the practice of a unique form of pre-1959 Tibetan life there. An appendix contains Tibetan oral texts used in this study.

This thesis documents a comprehensive search of all material relating to women in the ancient Hindu text, the Mahabharata. It follows three themes: 1. Women's experiences and views. 2. Women's and men's critiques of patriarchal society. 3. Religious and social constraints imposed upon women within patriarchy, On the surface, the Mahabharata upholds patriarchal attitudes. However, it also contains criticism of these conventions and challenges to its religious framework. This critical role is frequently adopted by women who show the limitations of dharma (conventional religion) and illuminate the path of Sanatana dharma (eternal religion). The Mahabharata records the Hindu understanding that religious symbols and social patterns change, and leave a record of their changes rather than any dogmatic truths. Women's critiques of patriarchal religion show the way that Hinduism allows it's own symbols and ideas of dharma to be fallible, transient, and inappropriate in the quest for Sanatana dharma.

This thesis documents a comprehensive search of all material relating to women in the ancient Hindu text, the Mahabharata. It follows three themes: 1. Women's experiences and views. 2. Women's and men's critiques of patriarchal society. 3. Religious and social constraints imposed upon women within patriarchy, On the surface, the Mahabharata upholds patriarchal attitudes. However, it also contains criticism of these conventions and challenges to its religious framework. This critical role is frequently adopted by women who show the limitations of dharma (conventional religion) and illuminate the path of Sanatana dharma (eternal religion). The Mahabharata records the Hindu understanding that religious symbols and social patterns change, and leave a record of their changes rather than any dogmatic truths. Women's critiques of patriarchal religion show the way that Hinduism allows it's own symbols and ideas of dharma to be fallible, transient, and inappropriate in the quest for Sanatana dharma.

An investigation into the operation of a small rural Fundamentalist Christian Fellowship is the subject of the following thesis. This field research was undertaken through observing the group for three months by attending Sunday Fellowship meetings. At the completion of that period, eight members were interviewed. Informal discussions during that time, involving approximately thirty members, added to the information accumulated. Through observation it became apparent this group originated because of their dissatisfaction with the local Christian church. This break-away Fellowship sought to form a version of Christianity that was unstructured, flexible, informal and lacking in hierarchy. As previous research had been carried out with this group, information that might otherwise have remained hidden, such as a disfellowshipped couple, became available. The scope of this thesis will include: the development of the group, observation of a typical Fellowship meeting, investigations into their 'Biblically-based' attitude and how this related to their everyday existence, as well as information concerning a rift within the Fellowship that resulted in the expulsion of two of its members. This research led to the conclusion that although the Fellowship fulfilled a desired need within the group, its future seemed uncertain, due in part to the very aims it sought to achieve. The spiritual aspect of this Christian Fellowship was willing and strong but the physical composition, the informal hierarchical structure and format, was weak, and so in the final analysis, I consider this and similar Fellowships will have a finite, continually changing existence. All names and places have been changed, at the request of those involved, to protect the group concerned.

Grief at the death of someone we love is a universal experience although no two people's grief is exactly the same. Lives are changed profoundly by grief, often negatively but sometimes positively. It is the aim of this study to present funerals as a potentially important factor in shaping the outcome of grief. The funeral is presented as having the main function of assisting the bereaved toward a healthy adjustment to the death of a loved one. The person primarily responsible for creating this focus at a funeral is the religious officiant still common at most funerals in New Zealand. The funeral is viewed as being primarily although not solely a 'pastoral office.' The work outlines the background against which the funeral in New Zealand can be viewed and gives an overview of the extensive writing on grief. In order to narrow the focus to manageable proportions I concentrate on the Anglican funeral service as laid out in A New Zealand Prayer Book (1989) and practised by Anglican priests in Christchurch and the surrounding districts. This focus is followed through by interviews with sixteen Anglican priests active in conducting funerals. I discuss their assessment of the funeral's ability to assist with the grief work of the bereaved and how in practical terms they achieve this aim. I quote widely from these interviews examining how different aspects of the funeral can assist with grief in both theory and practice. There are marked differences in the way that Anglican priests conduct funerals and employ the liturgy. Many make additions and omissions to the liturgy while some only use the material provided in the prayer book. The former generally place emphasis on the role of the service in assisting the bereaved with their grief work. The need for alterations and additions in the liturgy is particularly relevant in the case of bereaved with no strong commitment to Christian beliefs and practices who use a Christian officiant, content and structure for the funeral of someone close to them. The existing liturgy needs to be expanded and its structure reworked in order to more fully achieve the aim of assisting with the grief work of all who use the service. This focus by clergy on the personal function of the funeral is essential if the Christian funeral is to become a significant event with a relevance and a worthwhile purpose in our country. Otherwise it will increasingly become an empty tradition lacking in relevance and failing to fulfil its enormous potential.

This study presents a view of New Zealand women in Buddhism, based on information supplied by 62 women who have personally decided to undertake Buddhist practise. It excludes those from Buddhist family backgrounds. The aim of the study is to portray these women from sociological, religious, and psychological points of view. Survey techniques involved the use of interviews and questionnaires. Questions were predominantly open-ended in order to obtain both factual data and personal opinions. Chapters 2 and 3 record background data to provide an overview of the women, including their reasons for turning to Buddhism, and some of the ways in which it has influenced their attitudes and actions. Chapter 4 explains why 'conversion' is a proper term to use when describing these women's Buddhist practice even though it differs from the familiar Christian form. Chapters 5 and 6 describe what women and Buddhism each give to the other. They also include a criticism of Buddhism's patriarchal structure. Chapter 7 discusses the women's views on possible future changes to Western Buddhist communities in New Zealand.

This study attempts to look at the influence that fa'aSamoa (Samoan Culture) has on churches in New Zealand, based on the experiences of Samoans from the Pacific Islanders Presbyterian Church and Congregational Christian Church of Samoa. The bulk of the research was carried out in the Christchurch area over the period of a year. Survey techniques included questionnaires, interviews with key figures in the Samoan community and participant observation. A key aim of the study was to compare the views of respondents who were born and/or raised in New Zealand and born and/or raised in Samoa. Chapter One provides a historical background to the establishment of the relationship between Samoans and Christianity. Chapters Two and Three focus on two of the most powerful leadership figures in Samoa church life generally- the ‘Minister’ and the ‘Deacon’. In contrast, Chapters Four and Five focus on two groups that have been to some extent always in the background of Samoan church life- ‘Women’ and ‘Youth’.

This thesis is concerned with the concept of 'civil religion' and whether it is applicable to some aspects of New Zealand society. The origin, development and criticism of the concept is discussed, drawing on such scholars as Robert Bellah and John F. Wilson in the United States, and on recent New Zealand commentators. Using material such as Anzac Day and Waitangi Day commemorations, Governor-Generals' speeches, observance of Dominion Day and Empire Day, prayers in Parliament, the role of Norman Kirk, and other related phenomena, the thesis considers whether this 'evidence' substantiates the existence of a civil religion. The difficulties that confront any attempted analysis of a civil religion are discussed, with some reflection on the usefulness and applicability of the concept in current New Zealand society. The conclusion is reached, that under the terms of the study area, the suggestion that a civil religion currently exists in New Zealand is not soundly based on the evidence available.

This thesis discusses Church Union, or ecumenicalism, with special reference to the Methodist Church of New Zealand. It approaches the subject from two different viewpoints. First, by means of an historical survey of both the reunion of Methodism and the Church’s subsequent involvement in wider union negotiations. Second, by an analysis of a sociological survey, in which Methodist participants in the 1972 referendum on the “Plan for Union” were asked to respond to questions relating to their referendum vote. Central to the thesis is a critical evaluation of conclusions made by Robert Currie in Methodism Divided, which is an historical survey of the causes of Methodist division and reunion in England. Because Currie sees English Methodism as a “microcosm of Christianity”, he believes his conclusions have “considerable general relevance” or ecumenicalism. The thesis argues that if Currie is correct, then, given the heritage, history, and general social environment, of New Zealand Methodism, the validity of his conclusions ought to be confirmed in this instance. New Zealand Methodist history appears to give some, albeit qualified, support to Currie's conclusions. But how does the ordinary Church Member view these conclusions? The respondents to the survey (the survey was processed at the University of Canterbury Computer Centre) indicate that his conclusions have limited relevance for New Zealand Methodists. In particular, his emphases on numerical decline, and conflict between the ministry and the laity, in relation to ecumenicalism, appear to be relatively unimportant for the majority of respondents. Consequently, it may be that the historical method, necessarily employed by Currie in dealing with events in the past, is unable to reflect accurately the views of ordinary Church Members. If so, then Currie's belief that his conclusions have “considerable general relevance” for ecumenicalism needs reappraisal.

Guanyin occupies a prominent place in East Asian Religions, being honoured in both Buddhist and Taoist temples. This figure, often referred to as the Goddess of Mercy, is frequently depicted as a young barefoot maiden with long dark hair and flowing white robes. Surprisingly, however, this maiden started her career as a masculine bodhisattva. In addition many multi-armed and multi-headed forms of Guanyin can be found in different temples and a profusion of different attributes have appeared over time. This thesis looks at the degree to which other religious figures and cultural values have contributed to the development of the iconography of Guanyin. In studying and comparing the various iconographic forms in the diverse parts of East Asia we can see how local beliefs and other religious figures have shaped Guanyin's imagery. We can also see that it is the malleability of this cult figure that makes this possible. It is for this reason that the cult of Guanyin has been so successful. Part of the investigation into the influences that shaped Guanyin's imagery will involve a discussion of the 'sex change'. This has been the subject of much debate. Several figures can be said to have influenced this feminine form, these include Hārītī, Shengmu and Tārā. What is remarkable about the cult of Guanyin and explains its success, is that because imagery changes according to the needs of devotees, so gender also changes. This malleable quality of Guanyin is not restricted to gender but extends to other features and functions of Guanyin. These are determined by the beliefs of the various communities to which the cult has spread and evidenced by the interplay with the cults of other deities such as that of the Taoist goddess Mazu. In this particular case we can see first hand an example of the assimilation process at work. This thesis is the result of much 'on site' research, all photographs being my own except where cited otherwise. I use the 'Pinyin' system of transliteration except where the Wade-Giles form is more commonly known, which I show in square brackets.