<p>Waves are a fundamental feature in many parts of physics, since they transport energy without transporting matter. This is the case also in space physics. Waves are responsible for energy transport both between different parts of space and between different particles in the space plasma. They are also useful for diagnostics of the space plasma itself. The present thesis considers two different parts of the large subject of space plasma waves: Lower hybrid cavities (LHCs) and simple-pole particle distribution functions.</p><p>The LHCs are localised density depletions that have been observed by several spacecraft. They have increased wave activity in the lower hybrid frequency range, and was previously found on altitudes up to 1750 km. New observations by the Viking and Cluster satellites show that they are common magnetospheric features, at least up to an altitude of 35,000 km. Theoretical results, assuming a cylindrically symmetric density depletion, show that even though the density depletion may decrease slowly with increasing radial distance, and thus be essentially infinite in extent, there is a maximum distance within which a trapped mode, with given wave number <i>k</i><i>z</i> parallel to the geomagnetic field, may propagate. Furthermore, there is a local relation between the plasma density gradient and the lowest possible frequency that the trapped waves can have, for any monotonic density and given <i>k</i><i>z</i>. The combined theoretical and observational results indicate that the length of the cavities is larger than the width by a factor of at least 200.</p><p>Simple-pole particle distribution functions are introduced because they can model high velocity tails of the particle distribution in a way that is not possible to do with Maxwellian distribution functions. These distributions also simplify the calculations. This gives new possibilities for the physical understanding, as well as the numerical calculations, of the dispersion relations of real space plasmas. The dispersion relations of plasmas described by simple-pole distributions are examined, both for unmagnetised and for magnetised plasmas. These examples show how particle populations with the same density and mean particle energy, but with somewhat different distribution functions, have different wave propagation properties that should be observable by existing spacecraft.</p>

Waves are a fundamental feature in many parts of physics, since they transport energy without transporting matter. This is the case also in space physics. Waves are responsible for energy transport both between different parts of space and between different particles in the space plasma. They are also useful for diagnostics of the space plasma itself. The present thesis considers two different parts of the large subject of space plasma waves: Lower hybrid cavities (LHCs) and simple-pole particle distribution functions. The LHCs are localised density depletions that have been observed by several spacecraft. They have increased wave activity in the lower hybrid frequency range, and was previously found on altitudes up to 1750 km. New observations by the Viking and Cluster satellites show that they are common magnetospheric features, at least up to an altitude of 35,000 km. Theoretical results, assuming a cylindrically symmetric density depletion, show that even though the density depletion may decrease slowly with increasing radial distance, and thus be essentially infinite in extent, there is a maximum distance within which a trapped mode, with given wave number kz parallel to the geomagnetic field, may propagate. Furthermore, there is a local relation between the plasma density gradient and the lowest possible frequency that the trapped waves can have, for any monotonic density and given kz. The combined theoretical and observational results indicate that the length of the cavities is larger than the width by a factor of at least 200. Simple-pole particle distribution functions are introduced because they can model high velocity tails of the particle distribution in a way that is not possible to do with Maxwellian distribution functions. These distributions also simplify the calculations. This gives new possibilities for the physical understanding, as well as the numerical calculations, of the dispersion relations of real space plasmas. The dispersion relations of plasmas described by simple-pole distributions are examined, both for unmagnetised and for magnetised plasmas. These examples show how particle populations with the same density and mean particle energy, but with somewhat different distribution functions, have different wave propagation properties that should be observable by existing spacecraft.

In 1994 a new Forestry Act was accepted in Sweden. One of the aims of the law is to raise consideration forpreservation of biodiversity. Since the new law got accepted and some time has passed, there now lie someinterest in examining whether the law has been effective towards its purpose. Methods suitable for analysishave been examined during this study. The content of this pilot study is based around five parameters whichcan be used to validate the effects of the new law. The field study were executed in Orsa, Dalarna, Sweden ina managed forest where last clearcut was performed after 1994. The work consisted of measuring theparameters specified and comparing the results to reference data from before 1994. The parameters benefit tothe preservation of biodiversity is discussed in the report aswell as the differences between the Forestry Actfrom 1994 and the previous one. The parameters examined in this study were standing dead wood, treespecies, thick big trees, trees with cavities/cavernous trees and smaller areas saved for preservation. All ofthese plus a few other variables are being considered in the 30 § of the Forestry Act of 1994. The reportimplied that the variables had a positive effect on the preservation of biodiversity, and possible to beinvestigated within the restrictions of this study, seemed to have increased. Due to the size of the forest beingsmall and reference data for some parameters missing or covering larger areas, one must be careful wheninterpreting the results.In 1994 a new Forestry Act was accepted in Sweden. One of the aims of the law is to raise consideration forpreservation of biodiversity. Since the new law got accepted and some time has passed, there now lie someinterest in examining whether the law has been effective towards its purpose. Methods suitable for analysishave been examined during this study. The content of this pilot study is based around five parameters whichcan be used to validate the effects of the new law. The field study were executed in Orsa, Dalarna, Sweden ina managed forest where last clearcut was performed after 1994. The work consisted of measuring theparameters specified and comparing the results to reference data from before 1994. The parameters benefit tothe preservation of biodiversity is discussed in the report aswell as the differences between the Forestry Actfrom 1994 and the previous one. The parameters examined in this study were standing dead wood, treespecies, thick big trees, trees with cavities/cavernous trees and smaller areas saved for preservation. All ofthese plus a few other variables are being considered in the 30 § of the Forestry Act of 1994. The reportimplied that the variables had a positive effect on the preservation of biodiversity, and possible to beinvestigated within the restrictions of this study, seemed to have increased. Due to the size of the forest beingsmall and reference data for some parameters missing or covering larger areas, one must be careful wheninterpreting the results.

Hydropower plants have the ability to go from a full load to no load in just a few seconds. In order to go from full load to no load in a few seconds the flow is controlled by movement of guide vanes. At fault detection the guide vanes closes quickly for safety reasons. This causes hydraulic transients in the waterways, which leads to a pressure rise in the spiral case and a pressure drop in the draft tube.   There have been a few accidents related to these quick closures of the guide vanes where the runner blades break and entire power stations are damaged. These incidents are caused by a full column separation in the draft tube. An early sign of a full column separation is large cavities. The main objective of this degree project is to analyse the effects of a quick closure of the guide vanes and to make a guide book of how to find indications of large cavities when performing closure tests. Data taken from commissioning and status tests for several turbines were analysed.   In conclusion, the guide book of how to find indications of large cavities will help analyse the results of a quick closure of the guide vanes. Due to the unique appearance of pressure transients for each power station this guide book will not be enough for a complete analyse of a closing test. Although, it will help to notify when there is a need for further analyses by expert personnel.

Bien que souvent présentés comme des configurations atypiques, la classe des milieux diffusifs représente une grande partie des milieux dans lesquels se propagent des ondes aussi bien électromagnétiques qu'acoustiques. Les grandes cavités étant capables de bien approcher ces mêmes caractéristiques, elles sont largement utilisées dans un contexte métrologique, afin d'émuler un grand nombre de configurations pratiques et d'évaluer certaines propriétés de dispositifs électroniques, acoustiques et optiques. Nous nous intéressons à la modélisation statistique de la propagation d'ondes dans les grandes cavités. La pratique courante de modéliser les champs dans une cavité comme diffus est d'abord analysée, afin de montrer comment cette hypothèse n'est pas réaliste en basse fréquence, et les conséquences qui en découlent. L'importance du recouvrement modal et sa nature aléatoire sont discutées, montrant comment l'hypothèse diffusive ne peut pas être décrite comme une propriété certaine. Dans un deuxième temps nous étudions les applications du retournement temporel aux grandes cavités, ce qui nous amène à l'introduction d'une technique généralisée capable de reproduire des fronts d'ondes cohérents dans un environnement diffusif, typiquement regardé comme uniquement capable de supporter une propagation aléatoire.

Le carbure de silicium (SiC) est un matériau qui est considéré comme un semi-conducteur à large bande interdite ou une céramique suivant ses applications en microélectronique ou comme matériau nucléaire. Dans ces deux domaines d'application les défauts générés par l'implantation/irradiation d'ions (dopage, matériau de structure) doivent être contrôlés. Ce travail est une étude des défauts générés par l'implantation de gaz rares suivant les conditions d'implantation (fluence et température). La déformation élastique a plus particulièrement été étudiée dans le cas d'implantation de xénon à des températures pour lesquelles la recombinaison dynamique empêche la transition amorphe. Un modèle phénoménologique basé sur le recouvrement des cascades a été proposé pour comprendre l'évolution de la déformation maximale avec la dose. Des observations complémentaires en particulier par microscopie électronique à transition nous ont permis de préciser la nature des défauts créés et d'étudier leur évolution sous recuit. La formation de cavités a été observée pour des conditions sévères d'implantation/recuit ; ces cavités sont de nature différente (vide ou pleine) suivant la répartition du xénon. Cette étude est également reliée aux propriétés de gonflement sous irradiation, gonflement qui doit être anticipé dans les domaines d'application du SiC. / Silicon carbide is a material that can be considered as a wide band gap semiconductor or as a ceramic according to its applications in microelectronics and in nuclear energy system (fission and fusion). In both fields of application defects or damage induced by ion implantation/ irradiation (doping, material structure) should be controlled. This work is a study of defects induced by noble gas implantation according to the implantation conditions (fluence and temperature). The elastic strain buildup, particularly in the case of xenon implantation, has been studied at elevated temperatures for which the dynamic recombination prevents the amorphization transition. A phenomenological model based on cascade recovery has been proposed to understand the strain evolution with increasing dose and for different noble gases. In addition, with the help of transmission electron microscopy the evolution of defects under subsequent annealing was studied. The formation of nanocavities was observed under severe implantation/annealing conditions. These cavities are of different nature (full of gas or empty) according to the xenon and damage distribution. This study is also linked to swelling properties under irradiation that should be projected in the SiC application fields.

In recent years, Silicon Photonics has emerged as a promising technology for cost-effective fabrication of photonic components and integrated circuits, the application of which is recently expanding in technological fields beyond tele- and data-communications, such as sensing and biophotonics. Compact, energy-efficient laser sources with precise wavelength control are crucial for the aforementioned applications. However, practical, efficient, electrically-pumped lasers on Silicon or other group IV elements are still absent, owing to the indirect bandgap of those materials. Consequently, the integration of III-V compounds on Silicon currently appears to be the most viable route to the realization of such lasers. In this thesis, I present and explore the potential of an External Cavity (EC) hybrid III-V/Silicon laser design, comprising a III-V-based Reflective Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (RSOA) and a Silicon reflector chip, based on a two-dimensional Photonic Crystal (PhC) cavity vertically coupled to a low-refractive-index dielectric waveguide. The vertically coupled system functions as a wavelength-selective reflector, determining the lasing wavelength. Based on this architecture mW-level continuous-wave (CW) lasing at room temperature was shown both in a fiber-based long cavity scheme and die-based short cavity scheme, with SMSR of > 25 dB and > 40 dB, respectively. Furthermore, by electrically modulating the refractive index of the PhC cavity in the reflector chip, tuning of the emitted wavelength was achieved in the die-based short cavity EC laser configuration. In this way, I demonstrated the suitability of the examined EC configuration for direct frequency modulation. The proposed scheme eliminates the need for wavelength matching between the laser source and a resonant modulator, and reveals the potential of employing low-power-consumption resonant modulation in practical Silicon Photonics applications.

Le graphène et les nanotubes de carbone, assimilés à des nano-systèmes graphitiques, partagent des propriétés mécaniques, optiques, électroniques et vibrationnelles uniques. Associant faible masse, grande rigidité et comportement semi-transparent, des membranes de 10 à 100 couches de graphène ont été suspendues au dessus d'un substrat réfléchissant, formant ainsi un résonateur mécanique couplé à une cavité optique. Le projet de cette thèse repose sur les diffusions élastiques et inélastiques de la lumière pour sonder les contraintes mécaniques et les effets thermiques dans ces nano-systèmes graphitiques. Ce type de mesure repose sur la spectroscopie Raman, sensible aux phonons optiques du matériau sondé. Un premier aspect du présent projet de thèse porte sur l'utilisation de cavités optiques à base de graphène comme élément de base pour constituer un système hybride. Après avoir déposé une couche de molécules à la surface de ces membranes, nous avons montré que le signal Raman des molécules est exalté par un effet d'interférences optiques constructives. Nous avons mis en évidence la possibilité de moduler ce signal en se déplaçant le long de l'échantillon, ou en variant la position de la membrane à l'aide d'une actuation électrostatique. De plus, on peut observer des effets thermiques importants associés aux phénomènes d'interférences optiques dans ces membranes à base de graphène. Le second axe de cette thèse est la détection du mouvement et des contraintes mécaniques dans un résonateur graphitique (membranes de graphène multicouche, nanotubes, etc.). Au travers d'expériences menées sur des membranes suspendues de graphène multicouche, nous avons détecté la résonance mécanique de deux façons : en analysant la modulation de la lumière réfléchie et en mesurant les variations de la réponse Raman du résonateur. Cette détection, reposant sur l'augmentation des contraintes mécaniques à résonance, associe le mouvement mécanique du résonateur à un décalage en énergie des photons Raman et représente un schéma original de couplage optomécanique. / Graphitic nano systems, such as graphene or carbon nanotubes, share unique mechanical, optical, electrical and vibrational properties. Combining low mass, high rigidity and semi-transparent behavior, membranes made of 10 to 100 graphene layers have been suspended over a reflecting substrate. This results in a nanomechanical resonator coupled to an optical cavity. This Phd project is based on elastic and inelastic scattering of light in order to probe mechanical stress and thermal effects within graphitic nano systems. This type of measurement is made by Raman spectroscopy which is sensitive to optical phonons. A first part of this Phd project is about using graphene based optical cavities as a constitutive blocks to make a hybrid system. We have shown interferential enhancement of Raman signal of molecules grafted on the membrane surface. We have also demonstrated the possibility to tune this molecular Raman signal by moving along the suspended membrane, or by changing the membrane position using electrostatic actuation. Moreover, we have observed important thermal effects associated to optical interferences within these graphene based cantilevers. A second part of this Phd project is the detection of motion and mechanical stress within a graphitic nano resonator. Through experiments on suspended multilayer graphene membranes, we have detected the mechanical resonance by two different means : by analyzing the reflected light modulation, and by measuring the variations of the Raman signal of the resonator. This spectral detection, based on the increase of the mechanical stress at resonance, couples the mechanical motion of the resonator to a shift in energy of the Raman scattered photons. This represents an original scheme for optomechanical coupling.

Les constructions d'infrastructures linéaires de transport sont de plus en plus contraintes par la traversée de terrains aux caractéristiques mécaniques médiocres, pouvant mener à des tassements importants où à la formation de fontis en base de l'ouvrage. Un renforcement géosynthétique peut alors être mis en œuvre sur cavités potentielles ou en renforcement de plateforme de transfert de charges sur inclusions rigides. L'objectif de cette thèse CIFRE (Conventions Industrielles de Formation par la Recherche) menée dans le cadre du projet de recherche FUI (Fond Unitaire Interministériel) GéoInov est de mieux appréhender le fonctionnement de ces ouvrages renforcés par géosynthétique afin d'en optimiser le dimensionnement. Dans le cadre de la thèse, différentes expérimentations en vraie grandeur ont permis d'appréhender le comportement cinématique et mécanique des renforcements géosynthétiques dans le cas d'effondrements localisés sous un remblai granulaire non cohésif ou une couche de sol traité, et dans le cas des renforcements des plateformes de transfert de charges sur inclusions rigides. Une importante base de données expérimentales a ainsi été constituée. Des simulations numériques discrètes des expérimentations sur cavités et inclusions rigides ont été menés afin de préciser le rôle des renforcements et des mécanismes mis en jeu dans ces structures renforcées. Dans le cas des effondrements localisés, la calibration du modèle à partir des données expérimentales a permis de préciser les mécanismes de transferts de charges au sein du remblai, la géométrie de la distribution de contrainte sur le renforcement géosynthétique et les mécanismes de rupture pour le cas des sols traités. Au final, la combinaison des approches expérimentales et numériques a abouti à une meilleure compréhension de certains mécanismes de transfert de charges ce qui a permis d'apporter des améliorations aux méthodes de dimensionnement analytiques que ce soit pour le cas des remblais granulaires non cohésifs ou pour le cas d'une couche de sol traité renforcé. Des avancées et un enrichissement des codes de calcul ont été également réalisés notamment par l'intégration des grilles de renforcement. / Constructions of transport infrastructures more and more occurs in areas where soils have rather low mechanical characteristics, leading to considerable settlements or the formation of voids. Geosynthetic reinforcements then provide a technical solution over sinkholes or within a load transfer platform over rigid inclusions. This CIFRE (French Research Education by Industrial Convention) PhD is lead as part of the French FUI (Inter-Ministry Fund) research project GeoInov. The purpose is to get better understanding of the mechanical behaviour of geosynthetic-reinforced structures in order to optimise their design. During this thesis, different full-scale experimentations enabled to understand the kinematic and mechanical behaviour of geosynthetic reinforcements over sinkholes under a non-cohesive embankment or a treated soil layer, or geosynthetic-reinforced load transfer platforms over rigid inclusions. Thus a consequent experimental data base was built. The experimentations were then simulated using discrete numerical models in order to specify the role of the geosynthetic reinforcement and mechanical mechanisms within the reinforced structures. For sinkholes, the numerical model could be fitted with experimental data, which enabled to point out load transfer mechanisms within the embankment, the of the load distribution on the geosynthetic reinforcement and failure mechanisms for the case of reinforced treated soil layers. Finally, the combined experimental and numerical approaches lead to a better understanding of some aspects of load transfers within the embankment, which enabled to optimise analytical design methods for geosynthetic reinforcements within a non-cohesive embankment or a treated soil layer overlying a void. Progresses were also made and discrete calculation codes enriched by the integration of geogrids.

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