no / This paper presents results of a comprehensive investigation on the utilization of carpet waste fibers in reinforcement of clay soils. Effects of adding proportionate quantities of two different types of shredded carpet waste fibers to clay soils (i.e., 1, 3, and 5% by dry weight of the soil) were investigated and evaluated. The investigation was conducted on specimens prepared at their maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content, as well on specimens prepared at variable conditions of dry unit weight and moisture content. A comparison was also made on specimens prepared at the same fiber content by changing dry unit weight while moisture content was kept unchanged or by changing both dry unit weight and moisture content. The investigation revealed that inclusion of carpet waste fibers into clay soils prepared at the same dry unit weight can significantly enhance the unconfined compression strength (UCS), reduce postpeak strength loss, and change the failure behavior from brittle to ductile. The results also showed that the relative benefit of fibers to increase the UCS of the clay soils is highly dependent on initial dry unit weight and moisture content of the soil. Failure patterns were gradually transformed from the apparent classical failure for unreinforced soil specimens to barrel-shaped failures for reinforced specimens at 5% fiber content.

Doctor of Philosophy(PhD) / Soil Stiffness is an important parameter for any geotechnical engineering design. In laboratory tests it can be derived from stress-strain curves or from dynamic measurement based on wave propagation theory. The second method is a more accurate and direct method for measuring stiffness at very small strains. Until now dynamic measurements have usually been obtained manually from the triaxial test. Attempts have been made to automate the procedure but have apparently failed due to the high level of variability in dynamic measurements. Moreover, triaxial tests of soil can be very lengthy and manual dynamic measurements can be very tedious and impractical for long stress-path tests. In this research a computer program has been developed to automate the stiffness measurement (using bender elements) based on the cross- correlation technique. In this method the program records all the peaks and corresponding arrival times in the cross-correlation signal during the test. The stiffness is calculated and displayed on the screen continuously. The Bender Element enabled to get the small strain shear modulus. An arbitrary “Chirp” waveform of 4 kHz frequency was used for this purpose. Subsequently Bender Element test results were checked by ‘Sine’ waveforms of frequencies 5kHz to 20kHz, as well as by manual inspection of the arrival time. This thesis discusses the method and some of the difficulties in truly automating the process. Finally some results from a number of stress path tests on uncemented and cemented calcareous sediments are presented. Bender elements have been used by many researchers to determine the shear modulus at small strain. Most previous studies have used visual observation of arrival time, which is time consuming and often requires some judgement from the operator. This thesis will describe the use of cross-correlation as a method for automation of Gmax measurement. Cross-correlation has been claimed to be unreliable in the past. However, it will be shown that provided several peaks in the cross-correlation signal are monitored it is possible to follow the variation of Gmax throughout consolidation and shearing. The measurement can be made at regular intervals within the software controlling a stress-path apparatus. Details of the apparatus used and practical considerations including selection of waveform and frequency are discussed. A series of drained cyclic triaxial tests was carried out on artificially cemented and uncemented calcareous soil of dry unit weights 13, 15, and 17 kN/m3 and sheared with constant effective confining stress 300 kPa. Gypsum cement contents of 10%, 20% and 30% of the dry soil weight were used. In addition a series of stress path tests were performed on Toyuora sand samples. Results will be presented for two uncemented and one cemented sand. In addition to the bender elements, all tests had internal instrumentation to monitor axial and lateral strains. Results will be presented for Toyura sand to show that the measurements are consistent with those obtained by other methods. Results will also be presented for carbonate sand subjected to a wide range of stress paths. Finally, results will be presented for the carbonate sand cemented with gypsum. The degradation of Gmax of the cemented soil subjected to variety of monotonic and cyclic stress-paths is presented. Analysis of the results includes assessment of the factors influencing Gmax for uncemented sand. Preliminary analysis indicates that in order of importance these are the mean effective stress, the stress history, void ratio and stress ratio. For cemented sand, Gmax is initially constant and independent of stress path. After yielding the modulus degrades, becoming increasingly stress level dependent and eventually approaches the value for uncemented sand. Factors influencing the rate of degradation are discussed. For the Toyuora sand samples the effects of end restraint on the stress-strain response at small strains were investigated. The conventional method of mounting triaxial specimen has the effect of introducing friction between sample and end platen during a compression test. This inevitably restricts free lateral movement of the specimen ends. Frictional restraint at the sample ends causes the formation of 'dead zones' adjacent to the platens, resulting in non-uniform distribution of stress and strain (and of pore pressure if undrained). On the other hand the specimen with 'free' ends maintain an approximate cylindrical shape instead of barrelling when subjected to compression, resulting in a more uniform stress distribution.

Doctor of Philosophy(PhD) / Soil Stiffness is an important parameter for any geotechnical engineering design. In laboratory tests it can be derived from stress-strain curves or from dynamic measurement based on wave propagation theory. The second method is a more accurate and direct method for measuring stiffness at very small strains. Until now dynamic measurements have usually been obtained manually from the triaxial test. Attempts have been made to automate the procedure but have apparently failed due to the high level of variability in dynamic measurements. Moreover, triaxial tests of soil can be very lengthy and manual dynamic measurements can be very tedious and impractical for long stress-path tests. In this research a computer program has been developed to automate the stiffness measurement (using bender elements) based on the cross- correlation technique. In this method the program records all the peaks and corresponding arrival times in the cross-correlation signal during the test. The stiffness is calculated and displayed on the screen continuously. The Bender Element enabled to get the small strain shear modulus. An arbitrary “Chirp” waveform of 4 kHz frequency was used for this purpose. Subsequently Bender Element test results were checked by ‘Sine’ waveforms of frequencies 5kHz to 20kHz, as well as by manual inspection of the arrival time. This thesis discusses the method and some of the difficulties in truly automating the process. Finally some results from a number of stress path tests on uncemented and cemented calcareous sediments are presented. Bender elements have been used by many researchers to determine the shear modulus at small strain. Most previous studies have used visual observation of arrival time, which is time consuming and often requires some judgement from the operator. This thesis will describe the use of cross-correlation as a method for automation of Gmax measurement. Cross-correlation has been claimed to be unreliable in the past. However, it will be shown that provided several peaks in the cross-correlation signal are monitored it is possible to follow the variation of Gmax throughout consolidation and shearing. The measurement can be made at regular intervals within the software controlling a stress-path apparatus. Details of the apparatus used and practical considerations including selection of waveform and frequency are discussed. A series of drained cyclic triaxial tests was carried out on artificially cemented and uncemented calcareous soil of dry unit weights 13, 15, and 17 kN/m3 and sheared with constant effective confining stress 300 kPa. Gypsum cement contents of 10%, 20% and 30% of the dry soil weight were used. In addition a series of stress path tests were performed on Toyuora sand samples. Results will be presented for two uncemented and one cemented sand. In addition to the bender elements, all tests had internal instrumentation to monitor axial and lateral strains. Results will be presented for Toyura sand to show that the measurements are consistent with those obtained by other methods. Results will also be presented for carbonate sand subjected to a wide range of stress paths. Finally, results will be presented for the carbonate sand cemented with gypsum. The degradation of Gmax of the cemented soil subjected to variety of monotonic and cyclic stress-paths is presented. Analysis of the results includes assessment of the factors influencing Gmax for uncemented sand. Preliminary analysis indicates that in order of importance these are the mean effective stress, the stress history, void ratio and stress ratio. For cemented sand, Gmax is initially constant and independent of stress path. After yielding the modulus degrades, becoming increasingly stress level dependent and eventually approaches the value for uncemented sand. Factors influencing the rate of degradation are discussed. For the Toyuora sand samples the effects of end restraint on the stress-strain response at small strains were investigated. The conventional method of mounting triaxial specimen has the effect of introducing friction between sample and end platen during a compression test. This inevitably restricts free lateral movement of the specimen ends. Frictional restraint at the sample ends causes the formation of 'dead zones' adjacent to the platens, resulting in non-uniform distribution of stress and strain (and of pore pressure if undrained). On the other hand the specimen with 'free' ends maintain an approximate cylindrical shape instead of barrelling when subjected to compression, resulting in a more uniform stress distribution.

Engenheiros geotécnicos, defrontam-se frequentemente com solos de baixa capacidade de suporte. Para viabilizar projetos nestes materiais, pode-se utilizar fundações com grandes dimensões e/ou melhorar a propriedades mecânicas destes solos. Fundações de grandes dimensões podem ser extremamente onerosas e gerar impactos ambientais indesejáveis provocados por grandes movimentações de solo. Em contrapartida, o melhoramento das propriedades mecânicas do solo pode ser obtido por meio de tratamento com agentes cimentantes. Esta técnica tem-se mostrado bastante promissora nas diversas subáreas da geotecnia, como por exemplo, leito e subleito de pavimentação, estabilidade de taludes e terrenos para assentamento de fundações à compressão. A utilização desta técnica em fundações escavadas submetidas à tração ainda é incipiente. Até meados dos anos 1950, os métodos de previsão de desempenho consideravam somente o peso do solo contido em uma superfície ruptura somado ao peso da fundação, como contribuindo na capacidade de carga ao arrancamento. Estudos recentes passaram a incluir uma terceira parcela de resistência devido à resistência ao cisalhamento do solo. A partir de então diversos autores passaram a estudar técnicas de melhoramento e reforços dos reaterros. Num primeiro momento, foi estudada a influência das técnicas de compactação do reaterro e a substituição do material por outro com melhores propriedades. Atualmente, os estudos concentram-se no reforço dos reaterros com geossintéticos e adição de agentes cimentícios. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho é realizar um estudo avaliando os benefícios gerados pelo aumento da capacidade de carga, de fundações escavadas e reaterradas com areia fina e homogênea (proveniente da cidade de Osório/RS), cimentada, avaliando sua influência em termos das propriedades geométricas (diâmetro das fundações, profundidade de assentamento e diâmetro de tratamento) e geotécnicas (coesão, ângulo de atrito e módulo de elasticidade, influenciados pelo teor de cimento). Para tanto foram realizadas provas de carga à tração, variando-se o diâmetro (30 e 45 cm), profundidades de embutimentos (entre 0,5 e 2,0), e teores de cimento (0%, 3% e 7%). Através das provas de carga, verificou-se que o aumento do teor de cimento e da profundidade de assentamento aumentam a capacidade de carga à tração. Os resultados experimentais foram reproduzidos pelo método de elementos finitos por meio de retroanálise. A partir do modelo numérico gerado pela retroanálise, foram executadas duas análises paramétricas. Na primeira foram definidos os parâmetros significativos – coesão e embutimento – e determinada uma equação adimensional para determinação da carga máxima para tratamento de uma camada infinita. Na segunda análise foram definidos ábacos para determinação da perda de carga em função da redução do diâmetro de tratamento, para três níveis de cimentação – baixa, média e alta. / Geotechnical engineers frequently have to deal with soils that have reduced strength. In order to carry out the design of footings in such materials, their base has to be quite large and/or mechanical properties of the soils have to be improved. Shallow foundations of large dimensions can be extremely expensive and generate undesirable environmental impacts due to large soil movements. As an alternative, the improvement of mechanical properties of the local soil can be obtained by treating it with cementitious agents. Such technique has been used with success in several earthworks such as the improvement of base and sub-base of pavements, slope stability and particularly as a soil-cement mixture of a compacted layer over a low bearing capacity soil. The use of such technique in footings subjected to pullout forces is still insipient. Until middle 1950’s, pullout design methodologies of shallow foundations embedded in soil backfills considered only the weight of the soil contained inside a specific failure surface plus the foundation self-weight as the pullout failure load. Further studies included the shear strength of the soil at the failure surface. Since then several authors considered several techniques to improve and/or reinforce the backfills. At first the influence of backfill compaction and material substitution to improve soil properties were considered. Nowadays, studies concentrate in the reinforcement of backfills with geosynthetics and in the addition of cementitious agents. In such context, the main aim of present work is to carry out a research evaluating the benefits towards the improvement of uplift performance of footings embedded in cemented stabilized backfill, analyzing the influence of the geometrical characteristics of the problem (diameter of the footings, depth of embedment and size of the improved area) and geotechnical properties of the backfill (cohesion intercept, friction angle and Young’s modulus), the latter influenced by the amount of cementitious agents inserted on the soil. For doing so, several pullout tests were carried out varying foundation diameter (0.30 and 0.45 m), embedment depth according foundation diameter (ranging from 0.5 e 2.0) and cement contents (0%, 3% and 7%) in the stabilized backfill. Results of pullout tests have shown that the increase of cement content and embedment depth of the backfill increased uplift capacity. Field results were reproduced through a back-analysis using the finite element technique. In the sequence, two distinct parametrical analyses were also carried out. In the first analysis the parameters that show significance were cohesion intercept and embedment depth – a non-dimensional equation determining the failure pullout load (considering infinite horizontal improvement) was determined. In the second analysis distinct abacus were produced to allow considering reduction of horizontal treatment area for three cementation levels – low, medium e high.

Engenheiros geotécnicos, defrontam-se frequentemente com solos de baixa capacidade de suporte. Para viabilizar projetos nestes materiais, pode-se utilizar fundações com grandes dimensões e/ou melhorar a propriedades mecânicas destes solos. Fundações de grandes dimensões podem ser extremamente onerosas e gerar impactos ambientais indesejáveis provocados por grandes movimentações de solo. Em contrapartida, o melhoramento das propriedades mecânicas do solo pode ser obtido por meio de tratamento com agentes cimentantes. Esta técnica tem-se mostrado bastante promissora nas diversas subáreas da geotecnia, como por exemplo, leito e subleito de pavimentação, estabilidade de taludes e terrenos para assentamento de fundações à compressão. A utilização desta técnica em fundações escavadas submetidas à tração ainda é incipiente. Até meados dos anos 1950, os métodos de previsão de desempenho consideravam somente o peso do solo contido em uma superfície ruptura somado ao peso da fundação, como contribuindo na capacidade de carga ao arrancamento. Estudos recentes passaram a incluir uma terceira parcela de resistência devido à resistência ao cisalhamento do solo. A partir de então diversos autores passaram a estudar técnicas de melhoramento e reforços dos reaterros. Num primeiro momento, foi estudada a influência das técnicas de compactação do reaterro e a substituição do material por outro com melhores propriedades. Atualmente, os estudos concentram-se no reforço dos reaterros com geossintéticos e adição de agentes cimentícios. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho é realizar um estudo avaliando os benefícios gerados pelo aumento da capacidade de carga, de fundações escavadas e reaterradas com areia fina e homogênea (proveniente da cidade de Osório/RS), cimentada, avaliando sua influência em termos das propriedades geométricas (diâmetro das fundações, profundidade de assentamento e diâmetro de tratamento) e geotécnicas (coesão, ângulo de atrito e módulo de elasticidade, influenciados pelo teor de cimento). Para tanto foram realizadas provas de carga à tração, variando-se o diâmetro (30 e 45 cm), profundidades de embutimentos (entre 0,5 e 2,0), e teores de cimento (0%, 3% e 7%). Através das provas de carga, verificou-se que o aumento do teor de cimento e da profundidade de assentamento aumentam a capacidade de carga à tração. Os resultados experimentais foram reproduzidos pelo método de elementos finitos por meio de retroanálise. A partir do modelo numérico gerado pela retroanálise, foram executadas duas análises paramétricas. Na primeira foram definidos os parâmetros significativos – coesão e embutimento – e determinada uma equação adimensional para determinação da carga máxima para tratamento de uma camada infinita. Na segunda análise foram definidos ábacos para determinação da perda de carga em função da redução do diâmetro de tratamento, para três níveis de cimentação – baixa, média e alta. / Geotechnical engineers frequently have to deal with soils that have reduced strength. In order to carry out the design of footings in such materials, their base has to be quite large and/or mechanical properties of the soils have to be improved. Shallow foundations of large dimensions can be extremely expensive and generate undesirable environmental impacts due to large soil movements. As an alternative, the improvement of mechanical properties of the local soil can be obtained by treating it with cementitious agents. Such technique has been used with success in several earthworks such as the improvement of base and sub-base of pavements, slope stability and particularly as a soil-cement mixture of a compacted layer over a low bearing capacity soil. The use of such technique in footings subjected to pullout forces is still insipient. Until middle 1950’s, pullout design methodologies of shallow foundations embedded in soil backfills considered only the weight of the soil contained inside a specific failure surface plus the foundation self-weight as the pullout failure load. Further studies included the shear strength of the soil at the failure surface. Since then several authors considered several techniques to improve and/or reinforce the backfills. At first the influence of backfill compaction and material substitution to improve soil properties were considered. Nowadays, studies concentrate in the reinforcement of backfills with geosynthetics and in the addition of cementitious agents. In such context, the main aim of present work is to carry out a research evaluating the benefits towards the improvement of uplift performance of footings embedded in cemented stabilized backfill, analyzing the influence of the geometrical characteristics of the problem (diameter of the footings, depth of embedment and size of the improved area) and geotechnical properties of the backfill (cohesion intercept, friction angle and Young’s modulus), the latter influenced by the amount of cementitious agents inserted on the soil. For doing so, several pullout tests were carried out varying foundation diameter (0.30 and 0.45 m), embedment depth according foundation diameter (ranging from 0.5 e 2.0) and cement contents (0%, 3% and 7%) in the stabilized backfill. Results of pullout tests have shown that the increase of cement content and embedment depth of the backfill increased uplift capacity. Field results were reproduced through a back-analysis using the finite element technique. In the sequence, two distinct parametrical analyses were also carried out. In the first analysis the parameters that show significance were cohesion intercept and embedment depth – a non-dimensional equation determining the failure pullout load (considering infinite horizontal improvement) was determined. In the second analysis distinct abacus were produced to allow considering reduction of horizontal treatment area for three cementation levels – low, medium e high.

Engenheiros geotécnicos, defrontam-se frequentemente com solos de baixa capacidade de suporte. Para viabilizar projetos nestes materiais, pode-se utilizar fundações com grandes dimensões e/ou melhorar a propriedades mecânicas destes solos. Fundações de grandes dimensões podem ser extremamente onerosas e gerar impactos ambientais indesejáveis provocados por grandes movimentações de solo. Em contrapartida, o melhoramento das propriedades mecânicas do solo pode ser obtido por meio de tratamento com agentes cimentantes. Esta técnica tem-se mostrado bastante promissora nas diversas subáreas da geotecnia, como por exemplo, leito e subleito de pavimentação, estabilidade de taludes e terrenos para assentamento de fundações à compressão. A utilização desta técnica em fundações escavadas submetidas à tração ainda é incipiente. Até meados dos anos 1950, os métodos de previsão de desempenho consideravam somente o peso do solo contido em uma superfície ruptura somado ao peso da fundação, como contribuindo na capacidade de carga ao arrancamento. Estudos recentes passaram a incluir uma terceira parcela de resistência devido à resistência ao cisalhamento do solo. A partir de então diversos autores passaram a estudar técnicas de melhoramento e reforços dos reaterros. Num primeiro momento, foi estudada a influência das técnicas de compactação do reaterro e a substituição do material por outro com melhores propriedades. Atualmente, os estudos concentram-se no reforço dos reaterros com geossintéticos e adição de agentes cimentícios. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho é realizar um estudo avaliando os benefícios gerados pelo aumento da capacidade de carga, de fundações escavadas e reaterradas com areia fina e homogênea (proveniente da cidade de Osório/RS), cimentada, avaliando sua influência em termos das propriedades geométricas (diâmetro das fundações, profundidade de assentamento e diâmetro de tratamento) e geotécnicas (coesão, ângulo de atrito e módulo de elasticidade, influenciados pelo teor de cimento). Para tanto foram realizadas provas de carga à tração, variando-se o diâmetro (30 e 45 cm), profundidades de embutimentos (entre 0,5 e 2,0), e teores de cimento (0%, 3% e 7%). Através das provas de carga, verificou-se que o aumento do teor de cimento e da profundidade de assentamento aumentam a capacidade de carga à tração. Os resultados experimentais foram reproduzidos pelo método de elementos finitos por meio de retroanálise. A partir do modelo numérico gerado pela retroanálise, foram executadas duas análises paramétricas. Na primeira foram definidos os parâmetros significativos – coesão e embutimento – e determinada uma equação adimensional para determinação da carga máxima para tratamento de uma camada infinita. Na segunda análise foram definidos ábacos para determinação da perda de carga em função da redução do diâmetro de tratamento, para três níveis de cimentação – baixa, média e alta. / Geotechnical engineers frequently have to deal with soils that have reduced strength. In order to carry out the design of footings in such materials, their base has to be quite large and/or mechanical properties of the soils have to be improved. Shallow foundations of large dimensions can be extremely expensive and generate undesirable environmental impacts due to large soil movements. As an alternative, the improvement of mechanical properties of the local soil can be obtained by treating it with cementitious agents. Such technique has been used with success in several earthworks such as the improvement of base and sub-base of pavements, slope stability and particularly as a soil-cement mixture of a compacted layer over a low bearing capacity soil. The use of such technique in footings subjected to pullout forces is still insipient. Until middle 1950’s, pullout design methodologies of shallow foundations embedded in soil backfills considered only the weight of the soil contained inside a specific failure surface plus the foundation self-weight as the pullout failure load. Further studies included the shear strength of the soil at the failure surface. Since then several authors considered several techniques to improve and/or reinforce the backfills. At first the influence of backfill compaction and material substitution to improve soil properties were considered. Nowadays, studies concentrate in the reinforcement of backfills with geosynthetics and in the addition of cementitious agents. In such context, the main aim of present work is to carry out a research evaluating the benefits towards the improvement of uplift performance of footings embedded in cemented stabilized backfill, analyzing the influence of the geometrical characteristics of the problem (diameter of the footings, depth of embedment and size of the improved area) and geotechnical properties of the backfill (cohesion intercept, friction angle and Young’s modulus), the latter influenced by the amount of cementitious agents inserted on the soil. For doing so, several pullout tests were carried out varying foundation diameter (0.30 and 0.45 m), embedment depth according foundation diameter (ranging from 0.5 e 2.0) and cement contents (0%, 3% and 7%) in the stabilized backfill. Results of pullout tests have shown that the increase of cement content and embedment depth of the backfill increased uplift capacity. Field results were reproduced through a back-analysis using the finite element technique. In the sequence, two distinct parametrical analyses were also carried out. In the first analysis the parameters that show significance were cohesion intercept and embedment depth – a non-dimensional equation determining the failure pullout load (considering infinite horizontal improvement) was determined. In the second analysis distinct abacus were produced to allow considering reduction of horizontal treatment area for three cementation levels – low, medium e high.