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The main purpose of this study was to compare energy commitments of counselors working in elementary and secondary schools, colleges or universities and agencies. The underlying assumption inherent in the comparisons is that counselors have similar goals but are differentiated by setting and type of clients with whom they work. No previous research was found comparing personal characteristics of counselors in the various settings and the need for studying them was evident.Secondary purposes were to examine variables of age and amount of graduate education as determining factors of counselors' energy commitments. Counselors at the masters level, masters plus level and doctoral level were compared. For age as a variable, energy commitments of younger counselors between the ages of 20 years and 39 years were contrasted with those of older counselors between the ages of 45 and 59.

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Social exclusion is a multi-dimensional concept, but for most people an important component of social inclusion is work, meaning paid employment. The harshest form of social exclusion is imprisonment. Yet prisoners are required to work, which raises the question of the relationship between prison work and social exclusion or inclusion. Historically the purposes of prison work have been shifting and various, and in recent decades have been the subject of confusion and ambivalence. Empirical research on prison work in the 1990s suggests that underlying the confusion is the tension between opposing pressures: for social inclusion and social exclusion. In some respects prison work resembles normal work, and some prisoners receive training leading to qualifications which should help them get employment on release. Yet in other respects the prison's requirements to keep the workers captive and to maintain the system prevent inmates' work and training from being a socially inclusive experience. Other matters, like the funding of prisoners' training, reinforce a sense that prisons are separate from the rest of society. Efforts by the Prison Service since the Woolf Report to make prison regimes aid inmates' rehabilitation, i.e. their eventual social inclusion, have been hamstrung by the reappearance of three constraints which dogged progress in former years: an increasing prison population, preoccupation with security, and lack of money. These have arisen from public and political pressure for the social exclusion of offenders. Since 1997 the Labour government has initiated wide policies to promote a more inclusive society, has shown interest in restorative justice, and has given prisons more money for constructive regimes. Yet Labour has also endorsed measures which perpetuate offenders' social exclusion, like the Crime (Sentences) Act and the proposal to allow employers to demand criminal record certificates from all job applicants. Thus the conflict between pressures for social inclusion and social exclusion continues, and the tension is well illustrated by the issues surrounding prison work.

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This dissertation examines the total returns to the employment relationship from a variety of perspectives. In the first chapter, I examine different forms of training and study its influence on individual turnover. My second chapter examines the impact of mandatory volunteer/work experience in high school on the employment and wage decisions of youths. In my final chapter, I examine flexible work hours as a moderator in the relationship between workplace strategy and organizational performance. The first chapter highlights the importance of the type of training provided to the employee in order to avoid voluntary turnover. I compare the impact of institutional training compared to course training on voluntary turnover. Estimates indicate that employees who receive course training are more likely to leave the firm for another job, while employees who receive institutional training are more likely to stay with the firm. The results indicate that different types of training have differential impacts on the employee’s turnover decision. The second chapter utilizes a provincial policy reform that requires either working at a paid job or volunteering as a mandatory high school graduation requirement and examines its impact on employment outcomes. I propose that this reform causes a change in the perceptions of work by individuals which may lead them to sacrifice income for an altruistic purpose. In addition, the low quality of jobs found working or volunteering in high school may result in a distaste for work and hence provide motivation for enrolling in post-secondary education. The empirical results support this argument as the reform resulted in an increased likelihood of high school graduates to pursue post-secondary education, while those who entered the labour force had a lower probability of employment and lower wages. The final chapter examines the generalizeable conditions under which flexible work schedules are beneficial to firm performance. I find that flextime is not a best practice that is applicable across all firm environments. Instead, flextime only increases profitability when implemented within a workforce strategy focused on employees. Conversely, flextime when implemented with a cost-reduction strategy has detrimental effects on firm profits.