published_or_final_version / abstract / Zoology / Master / Master of Philosophy

The gram negative bacterium Shigella flexneri is an etiological agent of bacillary dysentery, and causes destruction of the human intestinal epithelium. S. flexneri is primarily transmitted via the fecal-oral route to its primary infective site in the colon. The bacterium invades and replicates within colonic epithelial cells, ultimately ulcerating the mucosal epithelium. To successfully establish infection, S. flexneri must quickly adapt to different environments in the host, including adjusting metabolism in response to changes in available carbon sources. In this study, the importance of the glycolytic and gluconeogenic pathways in S. flexneri pathogenesis was examined. The metabolic regulators CsrA and Cra reciprocally regulate the glycolytic and gluconeogenic pathways. The post-transcriptional regulator Cra activates expression of genes involved in gluconeogenesis and represses glycolysis. Conversely, CsrA activates glycolysis and represses gluconeogenesis. The absence of Cra increased S. flexneri attachment and invasion of cultured epithelial cells. In contrast, the csrA mutant was significantly impaired in both adherence and invasion. Both the csrA and cra mutants formed small, turbid plaques, suggesting that both regulators are required for plaque formation. The opposing phenotypes of the csrA and cra mutants suggested a correlation between invasion and glycolysis. The role of glycolysis in S. flexneri pathogenesis was confirmed by directly examining the first committed step in the pathway. The glycolytic enzyme phosphofructokinase I (PfkI, encoded by pfkA) is repressed by Cra and activated by CsrA. Glycolysis was critical for S. flexneri pathogenesis, as a mutation in pfkA rendered the bacterium noninvasive. The invasion defect of the csrA and pfkA mutants was due to reduced expression and secretion of the Shigella invasion plasmid antigen (Ipa) effectors. Expression of the master virulence regulators virF and virB was significantly reduced in the pfkA mutant, and is the principle reason for decreased invasion. The data presented show that glycolysis is required for invasion, but that plaque formation requires both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Because expression of the master virulence regulators is repressed in the pfkA mutant, S. flexneri may use carbon as an environmental regulator of virulence gene expression. / text

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Borrelia hermsii, an etiologic agent of tick-borne relapsing fever, binds negative complement regulator factor H (FH) via its FhbA protein. Direct demonstration of the role of FhbA in the disease process has been hindered by the lack of genetic manipulation systems for the relapsing fever Borrelia. Here, we demonstrate successful generation of a B. hermsii strain YOR fhbA deletion mutant (Bh YORΔfhbA) that constitutively produces green fluorescent protein (GFP). Genetic manipulation did not affect growth rate or plasmid composition. Bh YORΔfhbA lost factor H-binding and C3b-inactivation capabilities, but retained resistance to killing in human serum and infectivity in mice. Stable production of GFP was demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, these results suggest that B. hermsii employs an unidentified mechanism of complement evasion that is FH-independent and sufficient for persistence within the host. Additionally, this study represents a significant methodological advancement in the molecular characterization of relapsing fever spirochetes.

Francisella tularensis was a facultative intracellular pathogen and a gram-negative coccobacillus which has been categorized by the CDC as a potential class A select agent due to its highly infectious properties and high mortality rates. Francisella tularensis was also responsible for the zoonotic disease tularemia, which was usually transmitted by arthropod vectors or via contact with infected animals. Francisella tularensis subspecies novicida has been used by many researchers in genetic pathogenesis experiments to try to elucidate genes responsible for virulence factors. One of these virulence factors was a capsular material which has been thought to be involved in either increasing pathogenicity or infectivity of this organism upon engulfment by its principal host cell, the macrophage. There were many potential genetic loci which may be involved in this biosynthetic process of encapsulation. One such locus has excellent homology to the capsule biosynthesis operon of Bacillus anthracis, which, under certain conditions, creates a polyglutamic acid capsule (PGA). A transposon mutation in the amide ligase (capB) in LVS has a reduced virulence in murine infection models. I wished to investigate whether Francisella novicida was capable of producing such a capsule and under which environmental conditions this capsule was made. I have created a site-directed mutant of the capB gene in Francisella novicida U112 using targeted mutagenesis via PCR SOEing and have introduced this mutation via electroporation of a suicide vector. I have tested our mutant against preimmune serum treatments and have shown reduced viability as well as a reduced capacity for replication inside RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. I assayed for production of a PGA capsule via immunodot blot and electron microscopy as well as analysis by mass spectrophotometry of capsular extracts. I also tested various media constituents and different environmental conditions to determine which external stimuli may contribute to PGA capsule biosynthesis as well as regulatory changes in transcript levels of this operon.

Lyme disease is an emerging infection that is caused by the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex. These bacteria exist in nature through an enzootic life cycle involving Ixodes ticks and various reservoir hosts. One way that this bacterium adapts to the different hosts in the enzootic cycle is through the expression of outer surface protein C (OspC). OspC is a surface exposed lipoprotein encoded on circular plasmid 26 that forms homodimers on the bacterial surface and has distinct conserved and variable portions of sequence. When ospC is deleted, the spirochetes are unable to cause mammalian infection although the mechanism of this is unknown. Additionally, OspC is thought to be involved in reservoir host specificity/association and in tissue dissemination. In order to better understand the functional domains of OspC, the different conserved and variable portions of this protein were investigated. Three conserved portions of OspC were investigated: (1) the conserved cysteine residue at position 130 (C130), (2) the last ten C-terminal amino acids (C10), and (3) ligand binding domain 1 (LBD1). The C130 residue was mutated and this substitution disrupted OspC oligomerization in vitro and in vivo. A B. burgdorferi strain lacking the C10 retained full infectivity and plasminogen binding. The mutation of a single residue within LBD1 rendered B. burgdorferi noninfectious, indicating the importance of this domain in infection establishment. The variable portion of OspC was investigated by: (1) altering the surface charge of ligand binding domain 2 (LBD2), (2) inserting different OspC types into a constant genetic background, and (3) creating OspC hybrids. Alteration of the surface charge of LBD2 by site directed mutagenesis resulted in a lack of persistence in mice. By inserting an OspC type known to be noninfectious in mice into an infectious strain, infectivity was abolished. Strains expressing OspC hybrids indicated that multiple domains of OspC are involved in species specificity. Together these analyses demonstrated that OspC is as important protein that plays multiple roles in pathogenesis. The work presented here helps to increase the understanding of this crucial protein and the strains described can be used to decipher the full function of OspC.

Jaundice is probably the most common newborn infant problem dealt with on a daily basis by the family practitioner and paediatrician. Jaundice occurs when the liver cannot clear a sufficient amount of bilirubin from the plasma. When the problem is excessive bilirubin formation or limited uptake or conjugation, unconjugated (i.e., indirect reacting) bilirubin appears in the blood and indirect hyperbilirubinemia is the predominant form of jaundice found in the newborn infant. In the vast majority of newborns, hyperbilirubinemia is transient and benign but, in rare cases, the serum bilirubin rises to a level that is toxic to the central nervous system. Understanding the pathogenesis and epidemiology of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia; recognizing, the problems involved in appropriate surveillance and monitoring of the jaundiced infant and the factors contributing to bilirubin encephalopathy; and implementing treatment of the jaundiced neonate in a timely fashion, are issues that have engaged clinicians and researchers for some 6 decades. This work will summarize my contributions to the field of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and it includes papers published between 1971 and 2007. The description of this work will not follow its chronological sequence, but will be divided into the categories of diagnosis, epidemiology, pathogenesis, management, treatment, and bilirubin encephalopathy.

Hemodynamics (the patterns of blood flow along blood vessels), such as laminar shear stress (LSS) and oscillatory shear stress (OSS), plays an important role in maintaining vascular homeostasis and also the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. LSS, occurring mainly in the straight part of the vascular tree, is protective against the formation of atherosclerotic plagues, while OSS is the predominant hemodynamic pattern experienced by the branched regions and curvatures in the vascular system, in which most of atherosclerotic plaques are developed. Recent evidence indicates that the Hippo pathway is important in transducing mechanical stimulation. However, the exact role of Hippo signaling in hemodynamics and the development of atherosclerosis is unclear. Therefore, the present study was designed to investigate how the Hippo pathway responds to hemodynamic stimulation and the impact of this pathway in the development of atherosclerosis. / The central axis of the Hippo pathway consists of a chain of kinase cascade including serine/threonine-protein kinase 1/2 (LATS1/2) and downstream YAP/TAZ effectors. Activation of the Hippo pathway leads to phosphorylation, nuclear exportation and inhibition of YAP/TAZ transcription factors. The present study is probably for the first time to demonstrate that the Hippo pathway can be activated in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) subjected to LSS. Western blotting results showed that Hippo activation was most likely mediated by phosphorylation of Hippo kinase YAP. The results from the nuclear fractioning assay showed that the amount of the nuclear fraction of YAP/TAZ was reduced in HUVECs subjected to LSS. Repression of the established YAP/TAZ target genes CTGF and CYR61, and inhibition of Hippo reporter gene after LSS treatment, further supported the notion that activation of the Hippo pathway inhibits the YAP/TAZ downstream genes expression. In vivo experiments showed an increased YAP phosphorylation in the straight area of C57 mouse thoracic aortas as compared with aortic arch, which favors that LSS activates Hippo pathway under the physiological condition. To further understand whether different flow patterns have different impacts on the Hippo pathway, the effects of OSS were also studied. As expected, OSS inhibited the Hippo pathway through inducing the de-phosphorylation of YAP, and promoting the nuclear localization of YAP/TAZ. The induction of YAP/TAZ target genes (CTGF and CYR61) further confirms that OSS-induced inhibition of the Hippo pathway enhanced the YAP and TAZ transcription activity. / Since unfavorable hemodynamics is among the most important factors in the development of atherosclerotic plaques, I hypothesized that inhibition of the Hippo pathway is involved in the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. Adhesion molecules are a group of cell surface proteins that mediate cell-cell interaction. During the initiation phase of atherosclerosis, adhesion molecules are highly expressed on the surface of endothelial cells to enhance the attachment of monocytes to the vascular wall, leading to monocyte accumulation within the vascular wall. OSS up-regulates the expression of several adhesion molecules; however, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. To identify the role of Hippo pathway in adhesion molecules expression, the gene expression of HUVECs with YAP/TAZ knockdown was investigated using real-time PCR. The expression of the four adhesion molecule, ICAM1, E-Selectin, MCP1 and CXCL1 were down-regulated by YAP and TAZ gene silencing. To further study the mechanism, the promoter region of the four target genes were amplified from HUVECs genomic DNA, and subcloned into PGL3 reporter plasmids. The promoter activity was tested by co-transfection of the reporter plasmids with different dosages of constructively active YAP and TAZ. The present results showed that activated YAP and TAZ dose-dependently increased the promoter activity of these four genes. CXCL1 was selected for further examination because it has been recently reported to play an important role in oxidized LDL-induced elevation of monocyte attachment to endothelial cells. Analysis of the CXCL1 promoter revealed that two TEAD1 binding sites located within the promoter region of CXCL1. The reporter gene assay results showed that TEAD1 induced the CXCL1 reporter activity, indicating that the CXCL1 promoter was regulated by YAP/TAZ/TEAD complex. The EMSA analysis further demonstrates that constitutively active YAP and TAZ induced the binding between TEAD1 and the CXCL1 promoter, suggesting a direct association between TEAD1 and CXCL1 promoter. / To further explore whether the Hippo pathway activation could regress atherosclerosis development, TAZ knockdown adenovirus was generated and administered to ApoE⁻/⁻ mice fed on Western diet. The formation and sizes of atherosclerotic plaques were visualized using oil red O staining. Monocyte infiltration was estimated using monocyte marker CD68. The expression of CXCL1 was detected using immunohistochemistry. The present results demonstrated that TAZ gene silencing significantly suppressed the expression of CXCL1 and reduced the sizes of atherosclerosis plagues as well as monocyte infiltration in the vascular wall of ApoE⁻/⁻ mice. / To further identify whether Hippo pathway could be a drug target for the treatment of atherosclerosis, several known atherosclerosis risk factors and beneficial factors were tested for their effects on Hippo pathway. Four out of nine atheroprotective factors were found to suppress the TEAD reporter activity. On the other hand, four out of six risk factors were identified to increase the TEAD reporter activity. The present results suggest that atheroprotective LSS activates while atherogenic OSS inhibits the Hippo pathway. / The Hippo pathway could be activated by atheroprotective LSS, while it was inhibited by atherogenic OSS. Activation of the Hippo pathway inhibits the development of atherosclerosis at least in part through reducing the expression of adhesion molecules and decreasing macrophage accumulation in the vascular wall. The present new findings suggest that targeting this Hippo pathway is potentially useful for therapeutic intervention of atherosclerosis and associated vascular diseases. / 血流動力學（即血液在心血管系統中流動的模式），包括層流剪切應力（LSS）和振盪剪切應力（OSS）。血流動力學在血管穩態和動脈粥樣硬化的發展中起重要作用。LSS主要發生在血管系統的直線部分，可防止動脈粥樣硬化斑塊形成，而OSS是血管系統中分支和彎曲部分的主要血流模式，大部份粥樣硬化斑塊發生在此。最近的研究表明，Hippo通路在機械刺激傳導中起重要作用。然而，Hippo信號通路在血流動力學和動脈粥樣硬化發展中的確切作用目前尚不清楚。因此，本論文的目的是研究Hippo通路如何響應血流動力學刺激以及Hippo通路對動脈粥樣硬化的發展的影響。 / Hippo通路主要由一系列激酶鏈和下游YAP/ TAZ效應器組成，其中的激酶鏈包括絲氨酸/蘇氨酸－蛋白激酶1/2（LATS1/ 2）。激活Hippo通路可導致YAP和TAZ磷酸化，促進其出核運輸並抑制其轉錄激活的功能。本研究中，我們首次證明了在LSS條件下，人臍靜脈內皮細胞（HUVEC）和人主動脈內皮細胞（HAECs）中的Hippo通路被激活。Western雜交結果表明，Hippo通路的激活很可能是受YAP激酶的磷酸化調節。細胞核質分離結果顯示在LSS條件下，人臍靜脈內皮細胞中YAP/ TAZ的細胞核部分的量顯著減少。LSS处理后，YAP/ TAZ靶基因CTGF和CYR61的表達降低，其TEAD告基因受到抑制，这進一步證明激活Hippo通路可抑制YAP/ TAZ下游基因的表達。動物實驗結果顯示YAP磷酸化和YAP/ TAZ出核在C57小鼠的胸主動脈直的區域顯著高於彎的區域，這也表明在生理條件下，LSS可激活Hippo通路。為了進一步了解不同的血流模式是否對Hippo通路產生不同的影響，我們研究了OSS條件下的Hippo通路。正如所期，OSS通過誘導YAP的去磷酸化，促進YAP/ TAZ的核內分佈，從而抑制Hippo通路的活性。OSS誘導YAP/ TAZ靶基因（CTGF和CYR61）產生轉錄活性，證明了OSS可抑制Hippo通路。 / 不利的血流模式是動脈粥樣硬化斑塊產生的最重要因素之一，因此我們推測抑制Hippo通路或許可導致動脈粥樣硬化斑塊的形成。粘附分子是一類調節細胞間相互作用的細胞表面蛋白。在動脈粥樣硬化形成的初始階段，粘附分子會在內皮細胞的表面高表達，從而提高單核細胞附著和聚集於血管壁上。OSS上調粘附分子的表達，但機制仍不清楚。為了識別Hippo通路在粘附分子表達中的作用，本文用實時定量PCR檢測了YAP/ TAZ敲低了的人臍靜脈內皮細胞的基因表達水平。實驗結果顯示四種粘附基因，包括ICAM1，E-Selectin，MCP1和CXCL1通過YAP和TAZ的基因沉默而被下調。為了進一步研究此中機制，本文擴增了臍靜脈內皮細胞的基因組DNA中的四個靶基因啟動子區，並將其克隆到PGL3報告質粒。通過共轉染不同濃度的組成型激活的YAP和TAZ，本文測定了這四個啟動子的活性。結果顯示激活的YAP和TAZ能夠劑量依賴性上調這四個基因的啟動子活性。由於最近有報導說氧化低密度脂蛋白可誘導單核細胞附著於內皮細胞，而CXCL1在此誘導過程中具有重要作用，因此本文選擇CXCL1作進一步研究。通過分析CXCL1的啟動子，本文發現CXCL1的啟動子區域內有兩個TEAD1結合位點。報告基因檢測結果顯示TEAD1可誘導CXCL1報告活性，這表明CXCL1啟動子是通過YAP/ TAZ/ TEAD複合體來調節。EMSA分析進一步揭示了組成型激活的YAP和TAZ可誘導TEAD1和CXCL1啟動子之間的結合，表明TEAD1直接結合到CXCL1啟動子。 / 為進一步開拓Hippo通路是否是動脈粥樣硬化消退潛在的治療靶點，本文構建了TAZ敲低的腺病毒並將其轉入餵以西方飲食的ApoE⁻/⁻小鼠。通過油紅O染色來觀察動脈粥樣硬化斑塊的形態和大小。用單核細胞表面標記物CD68測定單核細胞對血管的浸潤。用免疫組化鑑定CXCL1的表達。結果表明TAZ基因沉默顯著抑制ApoE⁻/⁻小鼠血管壁CXCL1的表達，降低動脈粥樣硬化斑塊的大小及單核細胞浸潤。 / 為了進一步確定Hippo途徑是動脈粥樣硬化的藥物治療靶點，本文對幾個已知的動脈粥樣硬化的危險因子和有利因子對Hippo通路活性的影響進行了研究。出人意料的是，九個動脈粥樣硬化的保護因子中，有四個被確定為抑制TEAD報告基因活性。另一方面，六個危險因子中，有四個被鑑定為可提高TEAD報告活性。這些結果與上面的研究發現共同證明了LSS降低動脈粥樣硬化，激活Hippo通路，而OSS促進動脈粥樣硬化，抑制Hippo通路。 / 本研究確定了層流剪應力（LSS）激活Hippo通路，抑制動脈粥樣硬化；振盪剪切應力（OSS）抑制Hippo通路，導致動脈粥樣硬化。Hippo通路被激活能夠抑制動脈粥樣硬化的機制是通過降低粘附分子的表達，減少巨噬細胞在血管壁上的附著。這一新發現表明，靶向Hippo通路對介入治療動脈粥樣硬化以及相關的血管疾病具有潛在的應用意義。 / Wang, Li . / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 129-138). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on 08, November, 2016). / Wang, Li. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only.

Lu, Jianxin. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 218-241). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

Prion diseases are fatal infectious neurodegenerative disorders hypothesised to be caused by misfolding of the prion protein. Following prion infection, the infectious agent is sequestered to and replicates upon follicular dendritic cells (FDC) within lymphoid follicles prior to neuroinvasion. The mechanism of transport of the prion infectious agent from the site of infection to FDC is unknown. One of the postulated routes of transport is the specific migration of antigen presenting cells (APC) to FDC. APC specifically capture antigenic material and transport and present that material to effector cells and FDC in order to generate an appropriate acquired immune response. FDC reside within the B-cell follicle of secondary lymphoid organs. FDC organise and maintain the B-cell follicular structure by secretion of the chemokine CXCL13 which stimulates chemotactic movement of cells which express the CXCR5 receptor, e.g. B cells. Dendritic cells are specialised APC that are commonly characterised by their expression of CD11c. Transport of the prion infectious agent from the site of infection to FDC was observed to be blocked or severely delayed following depletion of CD11c+ cells. To determine whether CD11c+ cells acquire prions and subsequently deliver them to the FDC, the chemokine receptor CXCR5 was depleted from CD11c+ cells using a conditional transgenic mouse model. These mice were characterised for normal lymphoid organogenesis and monitored for their responses to oral infection with either prions or intestinal helminths. Data in this thesis show that the CD11c-mediated depletion of CXCR5 resulted in a delay in peripheral prion pathogenesis after oral exposure and significantly reduced disease susceptibility. These data suggest that efficient prion transport to FDC requires delivery by APC and is potentially mediated by CXCR5 chemotaxis. Following oral exposure to the intestinal helminth (Trichuris muris) CD11c-mediated depletion of CXCR5 prevented the establishment of a protective TH2 response. As a consequence the mice mounted a TH1-dominated response and were unable to clear the infection. These data also confirm that the effective generation of TH2 responses to oral helminth infection also requires APC localisation to B-cell follicles via CXCR5.