The phenomenon of transfer—our ability to perform novel tasks by generalizing from past experiences—has long captivated theorists and practitioners. As educators it is essential for us to understand what types of learning best promote transfer and to structure our curricula accordingly. With that goal in mind, this dissertation outlines two lines of research. For the first line of research I adopted an experimental approach in the domain of problem solving, examining a training technique whereby the learner solves practice problems for the same principle in dissimilar contexts as opposed to highly similar contexts. The key finding was that contextual variability improved transfer outcomes when a set of training problems were solved spaced in time (akin to a closed-book test), but not when prior training problems and their solutions remained visible throughout training (akin to an open-book test). This finding suggests that contextual variability during training can be beneficial because it forces the learner to more effortfully recall what they have learned in the past. For the second line of research I then adopted a correlational approach, investigating a ubiquitous self-report inventory, the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ), which is meant to quantify student learning approaches to predict educational outcomes. However, the SPQ’s predictive validity has recently been challenged because deep learning and its corresponding outcomes remain poorly defined. To tackle this measurement issue, my colleagues and I operationally defined outcome measures in real university courses to tap more precisely into transfer of learning. Across several studies we found limited evidence for the SPQ’s ability to predict transfer outcomes, leading us to suggest that educators and researchers should be more cautious about using this self-report inventory to characterize student learning. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / A central goal of education is to equip students with ‘flexible’ knowledge, enabling them to transfer the far-reaching principles they have learned to solve new, real-world problems. But what conditions of training are most conducive to transfer? One understudied technique involves being tested on the same principle in dissimilar contexts. The experiments reported in Chapter 2 provide evidence for this training technique in the domain of problem solving. Aside from direct interventions, another approach has been to measure individual differences among students to predict how much they engage in “deep learning”—a process closely associated with transfer. However, four correlational studies in Chapters 3 and 4 revealed little support for this approach, highlighting the difficulty of characterizing learning strategies using self-reports. In sum, this shows promise for interventions involving repeated testing in dissimilar contexts, but little promise for a self-report inventory meant to capture individual differences in student learning.

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to better understand how the diffusion (spread) and adoption (acceptance) of SkillSoft® (an e-learning product) occurred among employees of one military organization and to distill individual perceptions regarding influences that affected the process. This case study focused on the process and its challenges. Relating personal perceptions of the process and how various categories of influences (personal, organizational, technological, mandated policy, change) may have affected the process in a military organization provides a unique account that has been lacking in the literature. The results of this case study resonate with earlier research by Rogers (1983), Weinstein (1981), Sherry (1997), and Schein (1985), which found that influences (personal, organizational and technological) can have a dynamic effect on the diffusion and adoption of an innovation such as SkillSoft®. The study findings revealed that interviewees preferred job related e-learning experiences which support prior research by Bonk and Wisher (2000), and research by Thomerson and Smith (1996) who found that change in the way training is delivered can have an effect on the individual’s willingness to adopt an e-learning program like SkillSoft®. The study augments previous findings by Berge, (1997) indicating that culture can be a barrier to the implementation of on-line learning. The findings illuminated that awareness of the organization’ s environment (culture, mission, organization structure, decision-making process, communications channels, skills of employees), users’ requirements, as well as the product’s (SkillSoft®) fit with individual learning styles, are key elements to be considered when implementing an e-learning product in a military setting. Post Script: With the acquisition of SMARTFORCE®, SkillSoft® Corporation was able to diversify its e-learning training opportunities (course library) to better meet the learning requirements of military personnel since the initiation of this case study. Currently the 2003 SkillSoft® SMARTFORCE® library of courses is available free of charge on-line and is enhancing the knowledge and skills of active duty, reserve military personnel and Department of Defense government civilians. / Ph. D.

The integration of discrete mathematics into the secondary school curriculum (grades 7-12) is an important consideration because the mathematical area is dynamic and interesting, providing students the development of mathematical thinking. Also, it provides for teachers the opportunity to develop innovative mathematics instruction. Since the publication of the document Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 1989), it has been difficult to determine how many schools have integrated discrete mathematics as a separate or as an integrated course in the school mathematics curriculum. Moreover, the mathematics education research community has, for the most part, not focused on teachers' perceptions about teaching and learning discrete mathematics as an area of investigation. Because of the lack of research in this area, the researcher investigated preservice secondary mathematics teachers' perceptions about discrete mathematics and their reactions to the integration of discrete mathematics into the school curriculum. The researcher purposely selected four preservice secondary teachers who were enrolled in a mathematics course in the fall of 2005. Various data sources were used to get a deep understanding of each participant, including selected coursework, an online survey, and interviews. Results indicated that these preservice teachers perceive discrete mathematics as meaningful to students, as it emphasizes processes such as problem solving and mathematical thinking, and it provides opportunities to use innovative instruction. Because of this, the preservice teachers believe that discrete mathematics should be integrated in the school mathematics curriculum. In addition, several factors that affect the integration of discrete mathematics in the school were identified. These factors are the state curriculum and testing, the historical emphasis of algebra and calculus in the school curriculum, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989, 2000) Standards documents' views of discrete mathematics, teachers' views of discrete mathematics, the lack of knowledge of discrete mathematics, and the lack of materials and guidelines for teaching discrete mathematics. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify the perception of school principals in school divisions with a student population of fewer than 2,500 as of June 2022, within the Commonwealth of Virginia regarding their school's use of online learning post-pandemic. School principals' perceptions regarding online learning can impact future implementation practices when global pandemics do not require the use of online learning. A qualitative study was conducted to analyze the perceptions and attitudes of principals. The research questions were: 1) How do principals in small school divisions perceive their school division's size as impacting decisions about online learning? 2) How have principals of small school divisions institutionalized online learning post-pandemic? 3) What perceptions do principals in small school divisions have about online learning post-pandemic? The research included building principals from elementary, middle, and high schools in small Virginia school divisions to better understand how the different age levels impact decisions regarding online learning. Interviews were conducted individually with eight interview questions. The findings suggest that online learning has not increased in the rate of use since the pandemic. Regarding principals' perceptions regarding online learning note concerns about the effects on their students. Particularly, 67% of elementary principals expressed concerns regarding the ability of younger students to gain foundation fine motor skills through online learning. Overall, principal participants agreed that there is a place for online learning to provide additional educational opportunities and access for their students when used in specific situations and circumstances. / Doctor of Education / The purpose of this study was to identify the perceptions of school principals regarding the use of online learning post-pandemic in Virginia school divisions with a student population of fewer than 2,500 as of June 2022. School principals' perceptions regarding online learning can impact the future implementation practices of online learning when global pandemics do not require the use of online learning. A qualitative study, which collects data about people's perceptions, was conducted to analyze the attitudes of principals regarding the use of online learning in public schools. The research questions were: 1) How do principals in small school divisions perceive their school division's size as impacting decisions about online learning? 2) How have principals of small school divisions institutionalized online learning post-pandemic? 3) What perceptions do principals in small school divisions have about online learning post-pandemic? The research included Building principals from elementary, middle, and high schools in school divisions to better understand the different age levels that impact online learning decisions, particularly in school divisions that may have used online learning. Interviews were conducted individually with eight interview questions. The findings suggest that online learning has not increased in the rate of use since the pandemic and the widespread use of online learning. Principals' perceptions regarding online learning note significant concerns about the effects on their students, particularly elementary principals. Although there was a consensus of concern regarding online learning, the participants agreed overall that there is a place for online learning, and it does provide additional educational opportunities for their students when used in specific situations and circumstances.

The purpose of this research was to examine the perceptions of collaboration and individual communication skills among advanced high school students. Senior students from an Academic Year Governor's School for science and math, all of whom were enrolled in a 9-week leadership, teamwork, and communications course, participated in this mixed methods study. Pre and post surveys were administered to determine participants' perceptions of collaboration and their own communications skills and whether those perceptions changed after completing the course. Each student answered Likert-style questions taken from Zhuang et al. (2008) that categorized perceptions of three factors of collaboration: cooperation skills, advocating and influencing skills, and negotiation skills. A final open-ended question solicited elaboration regarding perceptions of collaboration. Junior students at the same school were not enrolled in the course but were asked to participate in the study as a comparison group. Two tailed t-tests revealed no statistically significant differences between the pre-survey results of the seniors and the juniors. T-tests also revealed no significant differences between the pre and post data for the juniors. However, senior participants had significantly more positive perceptions of collaboration overall; cooperation skills; and advocating and influencing skills; with a non-significant increase in negotiation skills, skills which were not specifically addressed in the nine-week course. The open-ended responses indicated that the seniors perceived collaboration in a more positive way when they were grouped with other students who were engaged and motivated. Students also indicated that positive collaborative experiences allowed students to hear different views and bring ideas together. More positive responses and fewer negative or neutral responses were noted in the post-survey data. The results of this study suggest that when the skills of collaboration and communication are specifically taught, students are more likely to view collaboration positively, recognize the benefits of collaboration both in school and in the workforce, and enjoy the experience of collaborating. / Doctor of Philosophy / The purpose of this research was to examine the perceptions of collaboration and individual communication skills among advanced high school students. Academically advanced senior students, all of whom were enrolled in a 9-week leadership, teamwork, and communications course, participated in this study that contained both quantitative and qualitative research data. Surveys were administered at the start of the course and then at the completion of the course to determine participants' perceptions of collaboration and their own communications skills and whether those perceptions changed after completing the course. Each student answered questions with responses including "never," "rarely," "sometimes," "often," "usually," and "always" taken from Zhuang et al. (2008). The results of the survey categorized perceptions of three factors of collaboration: cooperation skills, advocating and influencing skills, and negotiation skills. A final open-ended question solicited elaboration regarding perceptions of collaboration. Junior students at the same school were not enrolled in the course but were asked to participate in the study as a comparison group. The analysis of the results of the pre-survey data of the seniors and the juniors revealed a good basis for comparison. The data also showed little change of perceptions for the juniors over the 9-week period. However, senior participants had significantly more positive perceptions of collaboration overall; cooperation skills; and advocating and influencing skills; with a non-significant increase in negotiation skills, skills which were not specifically addressed in the nine-week course. The open-ended responses indicated that the seniors perceived collaboration in a more positive way when they were grouped with other students who were engaged and motivated. Students also indicated that positive collaborative experiences allowed students to hear different views and bring ideas together. More positive responses and fewer negative or neutral responses were noted in the post-survey data. The results of this study suggest that when the skills of collaboration and communication are specifically taught, students are more likely to view collaboration positively, recognize the benefits of collaboration both in school and in the workforce, and enjoy the experience of collaborating.

"I was sitting here trying to think if some of the comments that we are sitting here making were unique to blacks in the tenure and promotion process, and I think that for the most part they are. I was trying to figure out why, and one thing that came to mind was the level of fear or trust that we have in the system that tends to be dominated by white male mentality and thought. Whereas, our contemporaries who are not black are faced with a lot of similar types of concerns, I think they’re inclined to trust the system more in that they are not necessarily fearful of how this subjectivity or discussion will be turned against them, merely because of their color, because that is not an issue..." This study was conducted to discover and explore perceived factors that influence the achievement of tenure for African American faculty at two predominantly white institutions. Data for this study were collected by conducting focus group interviews with African American faculty. A total of 22 faculty participated in one of four focus group interviews. Data were analyzed by the constant comparative and axial coding method of analysis. The findings of this study indicate that progression towards tenure for African American faculty is related to how they experience the institutional environment and to structural factors related to the tenure process. Three major themes characterize their experience: (a) issues related to the traditional criteria for tenure, (b) value of tenure, and (c) interaction with the academic environment, that is, the institutional culture. The following are common threads underpinning the factors identified: (a) institutional fit, (b) double standards, (c) racism, (d) prejudicial attitudes and perceptions, and (e) trust and dishonesty. The challenge to attain tenure, despite the obstacles are viewed by the participants in this study as an intrinsic motivation to stay and “play the game”. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this study was, given the elimination of a Type I barrier, to investigate how teachers utilized the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) and what barriers teachers perceive to be present that may inhibit technology are barriers technology integration in the classroom. This qualitative study was designed based on the naturalistic inquiry approach (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Through purposeful sampling, this study took place in a suburban school division within the U.S. that has eliminated a Type I barrier, technology access to secondary teachers and students. The site was chosen due to the abundance of technology available to teachers and secondary students within the school division. Ten secondary teachers that participated were in various stages of their profession and years of service within the school division and represented various secondary schools within the division. The findings suggest that teachers fail to fully implement all of the ISTE NETS when it comes to integration in the classroom. Insufficient time to plan and prepare for activities that would integrate technology into the classroom was among the external factors most of the participants listed as to why their instruction did not always utilize technology. Although the division has eliminated a major barrier through its one-to-one laptop initiative, the findings indicated further external, Type I barriers existed. Results of this study suggest the key elements to the barriers that inhibit integration continue to be Type II barriers, teacher beliefs towards technology and teacher-centered pedagogy. / Ed. D.

Teacher evaluation systems were developed and implemented to increase accountability but also to increase teacher effectiveness. A review of the research and findings of previous teacher evaluation studies demonstrated the need to further examine the feedback in evaluation systems and their role in teacher professional growth. The purpose of the study was to identify the perceptions of teachers and administrators regarding the feedback teachers receive from the teacher evaluation process, how they perceive the impact of feedback on teacher growth, and what professional development has been offered because of the feedback. This descriptive study used qualitative data and quantitative data derived from a modified version of the Teacher Evaluation Profile (TEP) survey. The findings from this study indicated that teachers perceive the quality of feedback they received to be lower than administrators perceived the quality of the feedback they gave, specifically in regards to the frequency of the feedback and quality of the information contained in the feedback. In addition, there was a significant difference in the perceptions of the quality of feedback between elementary teachers and administrators and secondary teachers and administrators. Though teachers and administrators both perceived the working relationships as positive, few teachers reported making adjustments to their teaching practices in response to the feedback received. Teachers did not perceive teacher professional growth from adjustments made in their teaching practice in response to the feedback. Teachers also noted few opportunities for professional development suggested in feedback. As suggested by the findings, professional development needs to be specific in regards to providing effective feedback. Finally, teachers, with the help of administrators, need to focus on creating goals and growth plans with specific professional opportunities to help teachers grow professionally and positively impact student outcomes. / Ed. D.

The counseling process and relationship are inherently interconnected, and each person involved, or observing, has a unique perspective on what is significant. Thus, it is important for researchers to examine this process holistically for a more complete understanding of the counseling process and relationship. The purpose of this study was to describe the experiences of counselors-in-training (CITs) and clients in the counseling process with respect to what was meaningful, and the strength of the therapeutic relationship using a mixed methods approach. The following four research questions were a guide for this study: (a) What do CITs and clients experience as most meaningful in counseling? (b) What are the similarities and differences of what CITs and clients experience as meaningful in counseling? (c) How does the strength of the therapeutic relationship correspond to the depth of what CITs and clients experience as meaningful in counseling? (d) What are the similarities and differences of an observer's perspective and the experiences of the CIT and client of what is meaningful in counseling? These questions were explored through qualitative phenomenological interviews to capture the experiences of CITs and clients in a given counseling session, a quantitative instrument to measure the therapeutic relationship, and participant observation to gain an observer's perspective of the counseling session. Data analysis of the interviews revealed several themes of meaningful experiences for clients, CITs, and observer, with many similarities and some differences. Themes for clients were as follows: Counseling Relationship, Goals, Insight, Immediacy, Emotion, and Reflections on Counseling. Themes for CITs were: Counseling Relationship, Goals, Insight, Immediacy, Emotion, Nonverbals, Transference and Counter Transference, and CIT Negotiating the Counseling Process and their Role. Finally, observer themes were: Depth of Congruence, Goals, Insight, Immediacy, Nonverbals and Intuition, and Rescuing. There seems to be a slight connection between the strength of the therapeutic relationship and depth of meaningful experiences. More often than not, the stronger the therapeutic relationship, the greater depth of meaningful experiences of participants, however, these results are inconclusive. Findings from this research have implications for CITs, counselors, and counselor educators and supervisors. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this study was to explore the aspects of therapy as proposed by "common factors" literature (e.g., extratherapeutic change, hope and expectancy, therapy technique, and therapeutic relationship) by surveying the clients of a university based family therapy clinic. Data were used to provide information about what factors are therapeutically helpful according to the client's perspective. Surveys provided a quantitative and qualitative description of the client's therapeutic experience and were compared with those aspects of therapy found in the research. Quantitative results indicate that therapeutic relationship, client motivation, factors outside of therapy, and hope and expectancy accounted for around 49% of the variance of clients' perception of change and about 73% of the variance of clients' perceptions of therapy helpfulness. Findings further suggest that the clients' level of hopefulness and expectancy for positive change is the most significant predictor for both client change and therapy helpfulness. Qualitative results indicate that the therapeutic relationship is considered by clients to be the most helpful aspect of their therapeutic experience. / Master of Science