As escavações subterrâneas têm estado sempre afetadas pelas condições dos maciços, os quais apresentam diferentes características e comportamentos frente a deformações ocasionadas após a escavação de uma galeria ou túnel. Em virtude disto, torna-se necessário uma análise dos parâmetros que permitam estabelecer as condições de segurança do túnel e propõe-se o uso de um sistema estéreo de rastreamento ótico para analisar o deslocamento de artefatos (conjunto de marcadores) instalados sobre o contorno das faces do túnel, a fim de detectarem-se deslocamentos do maciço em pontos estabelecidos com precisão menor a ±1 mm. O sistema proposto opera na região espectral do infravermelho, permitindo assim uma operação em ambientes com baixa luminosidade e com inserção de ruído ótico. Adicionalmente o trabalho inclui resultados de validação e desenvolvimento do sistema de visão estéreo baixo condições de dois cenários de diferente volume espacial, assim como o procedimento realizado para a calibração dos parâmetros intrínsecos e extrínsecos dos sensores do sistema (câmeras monocromáticas). Os resultados obtidos apresentam uma precisão de ±0,1881 mm para artefatos com três marcadores e uma precisão de ±0,4952 para artefatos com quatro marcadores. Finalmente, o sistema opera com uma sensibilidade de 0,99 mm na determinação da posição de um artefato associado a um ponto do perfil do túnel, e desta forma, podem-se definir as condições de estabilidade do maciço rochoso e os requisitos para auxilio as decisões de métodos de tratamento e aumento da segurança. / Underground excavations have always been affected by the conditions of mass, which have different characteristics and behaviors against deformation caused after excavation of a gallery or tunnel. Because of this, it is necessary an analysis of the parameters needed to establish the safety conditions of the tunnel and it is proposed the use of a stereo optical tracking to analyze the displacement of artifacts (set of markers) installed on the contour of tunnels’ faces in order to detect displacements of the mass points established with a precision lower than ±1 mm. This system operates in the infrared spectral region to take advantage of the low light and reduce the optical noise in environments with grace. Further work includes validation results and development of low stereo vision conditions of two different scenarios spatial volume, as well as the procedure carried out to calibrate the intrinsic and extrinsic parameters of the system sensors (monochrome camera) system. The results show an accuracy of ± 0,1881 mm for artifacts with three markers and an accuracy of ± 0,4952 for artifacts with four markers. Finally, the system operates with a sensitivity of 0,99 mm in the determination of an artifact associated with a point in the tunnel profile position, and thus, one can define the conditions for stability of the rock mass and assistance requirements for the decisions of treatment methods and increased.

Ce travail de thèse présente un nouveau modèle de projection pour les cameras fisheye, qui est mathématiquement simple et pourtant montre une haute précision une fois appliqué aux caméras réelles. Les propriétés géométriques de ce modèle ont été analysées en utilisant le concept de surface de projection, introduit dans ce travail. En particulier, une inverse analytique de ce modèle a été établie, ainsi qu'une équation implicite des projections de lignes droites. Cette dernière nous a permis de développer une méthode de reconstruction 3D directe basée vision pour les caméras fisheye sans rectifier les images. Cela a été fait grâce à une algorithme de rastérisation de courbes implicites. Cet algorithme de reconstruction nous permet d'employer le Semi-Global Matching pour obtenir une reconstruction 3D précise. Tous ces éléments ont été employés dans un système de localisation visuelle directe avec deux méthodes de recalage d'images : minimisation d'erreur photométrique et maximisation d'information mutuelle. L'étalonnage intrinsèque et extrinsèque d'un robot mobile équipé de caméras fisheye a été considéré et une toolbox d'étalonnage a été développée. / This thesis presents a novel projection model for fisheye cameras, which is mathematically simple and yet shows a high precision when applied to real cameras. Geometric properties of the model have been analyzed using the concept of projection surface, introduced in this work. In particular, a closed-form inverse mapping and an implicit equation for straight line projection have been found. This fact has been used to develop a method of direct stereo correspondence on raw fisheye images via rasterization of implicit curve. This correspondence algorithm allows us to apply the Semi-Global Matching algorithm to get an accurate 3D reconstruction using fisheye stereo systems. All these elements have been shown to be applicable to a direct visual localization system with two different methods of image registration: direct photometric error minimization and mutual information maximization. Intrinsic and extrinsic calibration of a mobile robot with fisheye cameras has been considered and a toolbox for such a calibration has been developed.

Componentes metálicos em operação podem estar sujeitos a diversas condições de operação deletérias. Visando avaliar os riscos de operação para evitar falhas, a análise de integridade estrutural é uma ferramenta amplamente aplicada e requer constante evolução. Por utilizar dados de ensaios não destrutivos, essa ferramenta requer cada vez mais precisão, para aprimorar seus resultados e reduzir ao máximo as falhas de componentes em operação. Por apresentar menor tempo de inspeção e maior probabilidade de detecção, o Phased Array surge como alternativa às técnicas convencionais de ultrassom. Dentre as técnicas de Phased Array, o Total Focusing Method (TFM) apresenta um dos resultados mais promissores, apresentando grande vantagem sobre técnicas convencionais de ultrassom e de Phased Array devido a sua melhor precisão e fácil interpretação dos resultados. Neste trabalho, o TFM foi aplicado em diversos blocos contendo descontinuidades usinadas, as quais simulam diferentes tipos de defeitos. O foco do TFM foi gerar blocos em três dimensões (3D) dos defeitos, facilitando a interpretação dos resultados, além da possibilidade da inserção desses blocos em softwares de análise de integridade estrutural, melhorando a precisão dos resultados. O TFM foi aplicado através do tratamento de dados de um sensor linear de Phased Array, com frequência de 5 MHz e com 64 elementos ativos. Nesse trabalho, foram desenvolvidas e aplicadas novas etapas no algoritmo do TFM para melhorar a precisão dos resultados, como a compensação da perda de energia e o half-skip. As etapas adicionais aplicadas ao algoritmo do TFM geraram bons resultados para entalhe e furos usinados nos blocos de aço carbono. Além dos blocos com defeitos usinados, foi realizada a inspeção de um bloco de aço inoxidável austenítico soldado. Para o bloco soldado, os resultados não foram satisfatórios, não sendo possível detectar defeitos existentes. Após a aplicação do TFM, foi simulado o deslocamento do sensor ao longo da peça, gerando diversas imagens 2D, as quais foram conectadas via isosuperfícies, gerando sólidos 3D dos defeitos presentes em cada bloco. Por fim, esses blocos foram exportados para um software CAD, apresentando excelente correspondência. / Metallic components in operation can be submitted to several harming operation conditions. Aiming to evaluate the operational risks to avoid failure, the structural integrity analysis is a widely applied tool and requires constant evolution. As it uses non-destructive testing data, this tool requires increasingly precision, to enhance its results and reduce the majority of the operating components failures. Because of the shorter inspection time and greater probability of detection, Phased Array is an alternative to conventional ultrasonic techniques. Among the techniques of Phased Array, the Total Focusing Method (TFM) presents one of the most promising results, offering great advantage over conventional ultrasonic and Phased Array techniques due to its better precision and easy interpretation of results. In this work, the TFM was applied to many blocks, which contain machined discontinuities simulating several defects. The objective of applying the TFM was to generate three-dimensional (3D) blocks, turning the interpretation of the results easier and giving the possibility to insert these blocks into a structural integrity analysis software, enhancing the results precision. The TFM algorithm was applied through treatment of data from a 5 MHz linear Phased Array sensor with 64 active elements. In this work, it were developed and applied new steps in the TFM algorithm, as energy loss compensation and half-skip interaction, to improve its precision. The additional steps applied to the TFM algorithm achieved great results for notch and holes machined in carbon steel blocks. In addition to the blocks with machined defects, a welded austenitic stainless steel block was inspected. For the welded block, the results were not satisfactory and it was not possible to detect the present defects. After the application of the TFM, the displacement of the transducer along the block was simulated, generating several 2D images, which were connected via isosurfaces, generating 3D solids corresponding to the defects present in each block. To conclude, these blocks were exported to a CAD software, presenting excellent matching.

As escavações subterrâneas têm estado sempre afetadas pelas condições dos maciços, os quais apresentam diferentes características e comportamentos frente a deformações ocasionadas após a escavação de uma galeria ou túnel. Em virtude disto, torna-se necessário uma análise dos parâmetros que permitam estabelecer as condições de segurança do túnel e propõe-se o uso de um sistema estéreo de rastreamento ótico para analisar o deslocamento de artefatos (conjunto de marcadores) instalados sobre o contorno das faces do túnel, a fim de detectarem-se deslocamentos do maciço em pontos estabelecidos com precisão menor a ±1 mm. O sistema proposto opera na região espectral do infravermelho, permitindo assim uma operação em ambientes com baixa luminosidade e com inserção de ruído ótico. Adicionalmente o trabalho inclui resultados de validação e desenvolvimento do sistema de visão estéreo baixo condições de dois cenários de diferente volume espacial, assim como o procedimento realizado para a calibração dos parâmetros intrínsecos e extrínsecos dos sensores do sistema (câmeras monocromáticas). Os resultados obtidos apresentam uma precisão de ±0,1881 mm para artefatos com três marcadores e uma precisão de ±0,4952 para artefatos com quatro marcadores. Finalmente, o sistema opera com uma sensibilidade de 0,99 mm na determinação da posição de um artefato associado a um ponto do perfil do túnel, e desta forma, podem-se definir as condições de estabilidade do maciço rochoso e os requisitos para auxilio as decisões de métodos de tratamento e aumento da segurança. / Underground excavations have always been affected by the conditions of mass, which have different characteristics and behaviors against deformation caused after excavation of a gallery or tunnel. Because of this, it is necessary an analysis of the parameters needed to establish the safety conditions of the tunnel and it is proposed the use of a stereo optical tracking to analyze the displacement of artifacts (set of markers) installed on the contour of tunnels’ faces in order to detect displacements of the mass points established with a precision lower than ±1 mm. This system operates in the infrared spectral region to take advantage of the low light and reduce the optical noise in environments with grace. Further work includes validation results and development of low stereo vision conditions of two different scenarios spatial volume, as well as the procedure carried out to calibrate the intrinsic and extrinsic parameters of the system sensors (monochrome camera) system. The results show an accuracy of ± 0,1881 mm for artifacts with three markers and an accuracy of ± 0,4952 for artifacts with four markers. Finally, the system operates with a sensitivity of 0,99 mm in the determination of an artifact associated with a point in the tunnel profile position, and thus, one can define the conditions for stability of the rock mass and assistance requirements for the decisions of treatment methods and increased.

Componentes metálicos em operação podem estar sujeitos a diversas condições de operação deletérias. Visando avaliar os riscos de operação para evitar falhas, a análise de integridade estrutural é uma ferramenta amplamente aplicada e requer constante evolução. Por utilizar dados de ensaios não destrutivos, essa ferramenta requer cada vez mais precisão, para aprimorar seus resultados e reduzir ao máximo as falhas de componentes em operação. Por apresentar menor tempo de inspeção e maior probabilidade de detecção, o Phased Array surge como alternativa às técnicas convencionais de ultrassom. Dentre as técnicas de Phased Array, o Total Focusing Method (TFM) apresenta um dos resultados mais promissores, apresentando grande vantagem sobre técnicas convencionais de ultrassom e de Phased Array devido a sua melhor precisão e fácil interpretação dos resultados. Neste trabalho, o TFM foi aplicado em diversos blocos contendo descontinuidades usinadas, as quais simulam diferentes tipos de defeitos. O foco do TFM foi gerar blocos em três dimensões (3D) dos defeitos, facilitando a interpretação dos resultados, além da possibilidade da inserção desses blocos em softwares de análise de integridade estrutural, melhorando a precisão dos resultados. O TFM foi aplicado através do tratamento de dados de um sensor linear de Phased Array, com frequência de 5 MHz e com 64 elementos ativos. Nesse trabalho, foram desenvolvidas e aplicadas novas etapas no algoritmo do TFM para melhorar a precisão dos resultados, como a compensação da perda de energia e o half-skip. As etapas adicionais aplicadas ao algoritmo do TFM geraram bons resultados para entalhe e furos usinados nos blocos de aço carbono. Além dos blocos com defeitos usinados, foi realizada a inspeção de um bloco de aço inoxidável austenítico soldado. Para o bloco soldado, os resultados não foram satisfatórios, não sendo possível detectar defeitos existentes. Após a aplicação do TFM, foi simulado o deslocamento do sensor ao longo da peça, gerando diversas imagens 2D, as quais foram conectadas via isosuperfícies, gerando sólidos 3D dos defeitos presentes em cada bloco. Por fim, esses blocos foram exportados para um software CAD, apresentando excelente correspondência. / Metallic components in operation can be submitted to several harming operation conditions. Aiming to evaluate the operational risks to avoid failure, the structural integrity analysis is a widely applied tool and requires constant evolution. As it uses non-destructive testing data, this tool requires increasingly precision, to enhance its results and reduce the majority of the operating components failures. Because of the shorter inspection time and greater probability of detection, Phased Array is an alternative to conventional ultrasonic techniques. Among the techniques of Phased Array, the Total Focusing Method (TFM) presents one of the most promising results, offering great advantage over conventional ultrasonic and Phased Array techniques due to its better precision and easy interpretation of results. In this work, the TFM was applied to many blocks, which contain machined discontinuities simulating several defects. The objective of applying the TFM was to generate three-dimensional (3D) blocks, turning the interpretation of the results easier and giving the possibility to insert these blocks into a structural integrity analysis software, enhancing the results precision. The TFM algorithm was applied through treatment of data from a 5 MHz linear Phased Array sensor with 64 active elements. In this work, it were developed and applied new steps in the TFM algorithm, as energy loss compensation and half-skip interaction, to improve its precision. The additional steps applied to the TFM algorithm achieved great results for notch and holes machined in carbon steel blocks. In addition to the blocks with machined defects, a welded austenitic stainless steel block was inspected. For the welded block, the results were not satisfactory and it was not possible to detect the present defects. After the application of the TFM, the displacement of the transducer along the block was simulated, generating several 2D images, which were connected via isosurfaces, generating 3D solids corresponding to the defects present in each block. To conclude, these blocks were exported to a CAD software, presenting excellent matching.

Les tâches réalisées en traitement d'image tendent à devenir de plus en plus complexes. Par exemple, dans le contexte routier, les systèmes d'aide à la conduite, (Advanced driver-assistance systems), visent à une automatisation complète de la tâche de conduite. L’évaluation de la fiabilité représente un enjeu important pour ce type d’application. Face à la difficulté des tâches à réaliser, les chaînes de traitements sont souvent divisées en de nombreuses étapes de calculs de sorte qu'il est difficile de caractériser les sorties de la chaîne en fonction des perturbations des entrées. Les étapes du traitement consistent le plus souvent en des problèmes formulés comme la minimisation d'une énergie. Cette énergie est généralement difficile à optimiser, ce qui nécessite la mise en œuvre de méthodes d’optimisation adaptées. Dans cette thèse, nous cherchons à caractériser la solution d’un traitement à partir des calculs réalisés au cours de l’étape d'optimisation. Cette approche nous a permis de proposer des indices de stabilité de la solution dans le cadre de deux méthodes d’optimisation discrètes : la coupure de graphe et la programmation dynamique. Tout d’abord, nous nous sommes intéressés au problème de la reconstruction stéréoscopique en contexte routier et au dé-bruitage, dans le cadre de l’optimisation par coupure de graphe. Les modèles issus de l’interprétation bayésienne amènent à optimiser des énergies qui ne peuvent pas être traitées avec les schémas d’optimisation classiques par fusion binaire. Nous avons proposé un schéma adapté qui met en jeu des fusions binaires par expansion et par saut. L’application de ce schéma aux problèmes de la reconstruction stéréoscopique et au dé-bruitage, nous a permis d’obtenir des solutions possédant les caractéristiques que nous recherchions : des contours d’objets nets et des dégradés progressifs dans les zones homogènes. Ensuite, dans le contexte de la programmation dynamique, nous avons réinterprété l’a priori mis en jeu dans la méthode de reconstruction Semi-Global Matching ainsi que certaines de ses variantes. Nous avons proposé d’ajouter un paramètre à ces méthodes afin de modifier les directions privilégiées par l’a priori. Enfin, nous avons proposé des indices de stabilité de la solution dans le cadre de la coupure de graphe et de la programmation dynamique. La prise en compte de ces indices, dans une étape de raffinement des solutions, permet une amélioration des résultats / Problems solved by image processing tend to be more and more complex. For instance, in road context, ADAS (Advanced driver-assistance systems) aim to a completely automatic diving tack. Evaluating system reliability is an important challenge in that case. These tasks being hard to perform, processing chains are often divide in numerous processing steps. As a consequence, characterizing the output using the input of the chain is not obvious. Most of the time, image processing steps are formulate as an energy minimization. These energies are often hard to minimize and need to apply suitable optimization methods. In this thesis, we aim to characterize the solution during the optimization step. Using this approach, we proposed stability index with two discrete optimization methods : graph-cut and dynamic optimization. First, we focused on stereoscopic reconstruction problem in road context and on denoising problem using graph-cut. Models obtained by Bayesian interpretation lead to optimize energies witch cannot be handled by classical binary fusion optimization scheme. We proposed a suitable scheme composed of fusion by expansion and fusions by step. When this scheme is apply to stereoscopic reconstruction and denoising, obtained solution have the wanted characteristics : sharp edges and shading in homogeneous areas. Next, in dynamic programming context, we reinterpreted the prior used in Semi-Global Matching (SGM) stereoscopic reconstruction method and in some of its variants. We proposed an additional parameter in order to modify the favored direction in the prior. At last, we proposed stability index of the solution in graph-cut and dynamic programing context. Using this index in a solution refinement step shows improvements

As escavações subterrâneas têm estado sempre afetadas pelas condições dos maciços, os quais apresentam diferentes características e comportamentos frente a deformações ocasionadas após a escavação de uma galeria ou túnel. Em virtude disto, torna-se necessário uma análise dos parâmetros que permitam estabelecer as condições de segurança do túnel e propõe-se o uso de um sistema estéreo de rastreamento ótico para analisar o deslocamento de artefatos (conjunto de marcadores) instalados sobre o contorno das faces do túnel, a fim de detectarem-se deslocamentos do maciço em pontos estabelecidos com precisão menor a ±1 mm. O sistema proposto opera na região espectral do infravermelho, permitindo assim uma operação em ambientes com baixa luminosidade e com inserção de ruído ótico. Adicionalmente o trabalho inclui resultados de validação e desenvolvimento do sistema de visão estéreo baixo condições de dois cenários de diferente volume espacial, assim como o procedimento realizado para a calibração dos parâmetros intrínsecos e extrínsecos dos sensores do sistema (câmeras monocromáticas). Os resultados obtidos apresentam uma precisão de ±0,1881 mm para artefatos com três marcadores e uma precisão de ±0,4952 para artefatos com quatro marcadores. Finalmente, o sistema opera com uma sensibilidade de 0,99 mm na determinação da posição de um artefato associado a um ponto do perfil do túnel, e desta forma, podem-se definir as condições de estabilidade do maciço rochoso e os requisitos para auxilio as decisões de métodos de tratamento e aumento da segurança. / Underground excavations have always been affected by the conditions of mass, which have different characteristics and behaviors against deformation caused after excavation of a gallery or tunnel. Because of this, it is necessary an analysis of the parameters needed to establish the safety conditions of the tunnel and it is proposed the use of a stereo optical tracking to analyze the displacement of artifacts (set of markers) installed on the contour of tunnels’ faces in order to detect displacements of the mass points established with a precision lower than ±1 mm. This system operates in the infrared spectral region to take advantage of the low light and reduce the optical noise in environments with grace. Further work includes validation results and development of low stereo vision conditions of two different scenarios spatial volume, as well as the procedure carried out to calibrate the intrinsic and extrinsic parameters of the system sensors (monochrome camera) system. The results show an accuracy of ± 0,1881 mm for artifacts with three markers and an accuracy of ± 0,4952 for artifacts with four markers. Finally, the system operates with a sensitivity of 0,99 mm in the determination of an artifact associated with a point in the tunnel profile position, and thus, one can define the conditions for stability of the rock mass and assistance requirements for the decisions of treatment methods and increased.

This thesis describes how a pipeline was obtained to reconstruct an urban environment from terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetric 3D maps of Norrköping, visualized in first prison and real-time. Together with LIU University and the city planning office of Norrköping the project was carried out as a preliminary study to get an idea of how much work is needed and in what accuracy we can recreate a few buildings. The visualization is intended to demonstrate a new way of exploring the city in virtual reality as well as visualize the geometrical and textural details in a higher quality comparing to the 3D map that Municipality of Norrköping uses today. Before, the map has only been intended to be displayed from a bird’s eye view and has poor resolution from closer ranges. In order to improve the resolution, HDR photos were used to texture the laser scanned model and cover a particular area of the low res 3D map. This thesis will explain which method was used to process a point based environment for texturing and setting up an environment in Unreal using both the 3d map and the laser scanned model.

Le pilotage de véhicule blindé est rendu difficile par la faible visibilité offerte aux pilotes face aux environnements et aux situations complexes qu’ils doivent traverser.La protection des opérateurs de véhicules militaires et l’intégrité de ces véhicules sont des besoins primordiaux pour l’armée de terre.Afin de répondre à la problématique : sécuriser le pilotage des véhicules militaires avec comme périmètre la définition d’un système de perception d’environnement, nous avons procédé à l’étude au sens large de l’aide au pilotage dans le contexte militaire en environnement naturel et semi-structuré afin de mettre en exergue les moyens et les capteurs utilisables pour réaliser un système d’aide au pilotage.Ainsi, nous offrons une réponse technique pour la réalisation d’un tel système au travers premièrement d’une étude des méthodes et algorithmes existants applicables à notre cas d’application. Ensuite nous définissons les capteurs utilisables avec de telles méthodes. De cet état de l’art, nous définissonsune système répondant à notre problématique et nous expliquons sa mise en pratique au travers de la création d’une plateforme d’expérimentation.Cette plateforme se compose des solutions présentées et permet de valider le concept par l’évaluation des solutions d’acquisition de l’environnement afin d’offrir les données nécessaires à une aide au pilotage.Puis, l’étude des moyens d’analyse de cet environnement offre des pistes de réflexion sur le futur système d’aide au pilotage.Enfin, une l’étude d’un moyen alternatif de restitution de l’information à l’opérateur complète la solution présentée en offrant une piste de réflexion sur l’impact de la restitution dans les performances des opérateurs. / Armored vehicule driving is difficult because of low visibility given to pilots in tough environnements conditions and complex situations they have to manage.Soldiers safety and vehicle integrity are part of main topics for French “Armée de Terre”. To answer the problem Make the driving of military vehicles safer by improving environnement perception through driver asssistance systems, we study driving assistance in unstructured environnemnt by looking for sensors and methods which are suitable to realize such a system.First, we study existing methods and algorithms which fit our application case. Conclusion of this study is the definition of our system.Second, thanks to the previous study we explain the creation of an experimentation platform allowing evaluation of our concept. Data obtained from reconstruction are then exploited through environment analysis to bring obstacle extraction methods.Third, study of an alternative display solution is exposed and complete this work in explaining impact of restitution in operating cycle.

Several automatic methods exist for creating 3D point clouds extracted from 2D photos. In manycases, the result is a sparse point cloud, unevenly distributed over the scene.After determining the coordinates of the same point in two images of an object, the 3D positionof that point can be calculated using knowledge of camera data and relative orientation. A model created from a unevenly distributed point clouds may loss detail and precision in thesparse areas. The aim of this thesis is to study methods for densification of point clouds. This thesis contains a literature study over different methods for extracting matched point pairs,and an implementation of Least Square Template Matching (LSTM) with a set of improvementtechniques. The implementation is evaluated on a set of different scenes of various difficulty. LSTM is implemented by working on a dense grid of points in an image and Wallis filtering isused to enhance contrast. The matched point correspondences are evaluated with parameters fromthe optimization in order to keep good matches and discard bad ones. The purpose is to find detailsclose to a plane in the images, or on plane-like surfaces. A set of extensions to LSTM is implemented in the aim of improving the quality of the matchedpoints. The seed points are improved by Transformed Normalized Cross Correlation (TNCC) andMultiple Seed Points (MSP) for the same template, and then tested to see if they converge to thesame result. Wallis filtering is used to increase the contrast in the image. The quality of the extractedpoints are evaluated with respect to correlation with other optimization parameters and comparisonof standard deviation in x- and y- direction. If a point is rejected, the option to try again with a largertemplate size exists, called Adaptive Template Size (ATS).