Acid fracture conductivity and the effect of key variables in the etching process during acid fracturing can be assessed at the laboratory scale. This is accomplished by using an experimental apparatus that simulates acid injection fluxes comparable to those in actual acid fracture treatments. After acid etching, fracture conductivity is measured at different closure stresses. This research work presents a systematic study to investigate the effect of temperature, rock-acid contact time and initial condition of the fracture surfaces on acid fracture conductivity in the Austin Chalk formation. While temperature and rock-acid contact are variables normally studied in fracture conductivity tests, the effect of the initial condition of the fracture surface has not been extensively investigated. The experimental results showed that there is no significant difference in acid fracture conductivity at high closure stress using smooth or rough fracture surfaces. In addition, we analyzed the mechanisms of acid etching and resulting conductivity creation in the two types of fracture surfaces studied by using surface profiles. For smooth surfaces, the mechanism of conductivity creation seems connected to uneven etching of the rock and roughness generation. For rough surfaces, acid conductivity is related to smoothing and deepening of the initial features on the sample surface than by creating more roughness. Finally, we compared the experimental results with Nirode-Kruk correlation for acid fracture conductivity.

Acid fracturing stimulation is one of the preferred methods to improve well productivity in carbonate reservoirs. Acid is injected into the fractured zone after a starter fracture is created in the near wellbore area by viscous fluid (pad). This results in propagation of a two-wing crack away from the perforations with simultaneous dissolution etching of the created surfaces. If the created etched surface is non-uniform, then after the treatment ends and the fracture face closes, a high conductivity path may remain in the formation, connected to the well. The important factors controlling the effectiveness of acid fracturing are the etched-fracture penetration and conductivity. In this research, I use the distributed volumetric sources (DVS) method to calculate gas production from a well stimulated by acid fracturing. The novel concept realized in this research is that, during the production process, the conductivity of the acid created fracture changes. I use the Nierode - Kruk correlation to describe this effect as a function of effective closure stress that in turn is determined from the flowing bottomhole pressure and minimum horizontal stress. By combining the well productivity calculation from the DVS method taking into account varying fracture conductivity with gas material balance, I obtain an improved model of gas production. The model is then used to not only forecast production from acid fractured wells but also to evaluate the known production history of such wells. Based on the concepts discussed above, I have developed a program called "Gas Acid" which is useful to optimize acid fracturing treatments and also suitable to infer created fracture parameters from known production history. The "Gas Acid" program has been validated with data from two Saudi Aramco gas wells. It was found that the production forecast obtained from the "Gas Acid" program matches the actual production history with reasonable accuracy and the remaining discrepancy could be resolved by taking into account refinement of the material balance. The refinement became necessary, because the "Gas Acid" program was developed for dry gas but the reservoir fluids in the field examples were classified as retrograde gas and wet gas. When accounting for the additional mass of gas "hidden" in the produced condensate, the match of forecast and actual data was improved considerably.

Emulsified acids have been extensively used in the oil industry since 1933. Most of the available research and publications discussed mainly the application of emulsified acid in the field. A fair number of the published work also discussed in depth some of the emulsified acid properties such viscosity, stability and reactivity. However, all of the available research discussed the emulsified acid without sufficient details of its preparation. Beside their chemical composition, the ways emulsified acids are prepared cause significant differences in their physical properties. The characterization of emulsified acid by its droplet size and size distribution complements its chemical composition and gives the emulsified acid a unique description and thus reproducible properties. No previous study considered the impact of the droplet size on the characteristics and properties of emulsified acid. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to study the effects of the droplet size on various properties of emulsified acid such as viscosity, stability and reactivity. Results showed that the droplet size and size distribution have a strong effect on the stability, viscosity and diffusion rate of the emulsified acid. The results of this work are important because knowledge of the effect of the droplet size on major design parameters will guide the way emulsified acid is prepared and applied in the field.

[pt] O sucesso da estimulação por fraturamento é dependente da geração de condutividade. No fraturamento sustentado, a condutividade é governada pelas propriedades dos agentes de sustentação os quais são caracterizados por materiais uniformes, esféricos e de elevada resistência compressiva, capazes de manter a fratura condutiva mesmo em elevado estado de tensões. No fraturamento ácido, a condutividade depende da impressão irregular na superfície da fratura e da capacidade mecânica da rocha em sustentar um fluxo contínuo após o seu fechamento. A previsão de desempenho do reservatório requer, entre outros parâmetros, informações completas do modelo de fluxo e o decréscimo de pressão nas imediações do poço, a geometria e a condutividade resultante após o fraturamento possui grande influência nesta análise. O propósito deste trabalho visa investigar experimentalmente, a partir de testemunhos de carbonatos profundos, o comportamento de fraturas ácidas e sustentadas em diferentes estágios de tensão, desenvolver uma proposta de calibração do modelo empírico desenvolvido por Nierode e Kruk a fim de estimarmos a condutividade resultante utilizando dados de perfis com base em propriedades dinâmicas e composição mineralógica, e avaliar o impacto da condutividade na produtividade de um poço. Baseado na análise dos resultados concluiu que, é possível obter fratura ácida condutiva sob as tensões confinantes esperadas em carbonatos profundos e que fraturas sustentadas apresentam maiores condutividades, determinada pela característica do agente de sustentação utilizado, não sofrendo influência significativa com o incremento de tensão, ao contrário do fraturamento ácido. A partir dos dados indiretos obtidos de perfil a poço aberto, é possível obter uma estimativa da distribuição da condutividade de fraturas ácidas sem necessidade de testemunhos. Ao simularmos os ganhos de produtividade a partir de diversas variáveis disponíveis em cada técnica estudada de estimulação é possível ratificar que, não existe solução única indicada para carbonatos e que, a permeabilidade do meio é o fator preponderante na decisão. / [en] A well-succeeded fracturing stimulation depends on conductivity creation, which is ruled by the propping agent in sustained fracturing. These agents are characterized by uniform spherical materials of high compressive resistance, besides being capable of keeping conductivity, even under high stress state. Acid fracture conductivity depends on uneven etching on the surface of the fracture wall, as well as on the mechanical capacity of the rock to support a continuous flow after the fracture is closed. Reservoir performance predictions require, among other parameters, complete information about the flow model and about the pressure decreased around the well. The resulting geometry and conductivity after fracturing have great influence on these predictions. The aim of the present study is to experimentally investigate the behavior of acid fractures supported by different stress stages according to deep carbonate samples, as well as to develop a calibration proposition to the empirical model developed by Nierode and Kruk, in order to estimate the resulting conductivity by using data logging based on dynamic properties and mineralogical compositions. Moreover, it aims at assessing the impact of conductivity on the productivity of the well. Results of the herein performed analysis allowed concluding that it is possible to get an acid fracture under the confining stress expected for deep carbonates, and that sustained fractures have higher conductivity, which is set by the characteristics of the adopted propping agent. Therefore, different from the acid fracturing, these sustained fractures are not significantly influenced by higher stress. Based on the indirect data collected from the profile of the well, it was possible estimating acid fracture conductivity distribution, without the need of samples. The simulated productivity increase based on the different variables available for each of the assessed stimulation techniques made it possible ratifying that there is no single solution recommended for carbonates, and that the medium permeability is the main factor influencing the decision making process.